Chinese culture

Trebuchet

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A trebuchet or trebucket is a siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash masonry walls or to throw projectiles over them. It is sometimes called a “counterweight trebuchet” or "counterpoise trebuchet" in order to distinguish it from an earlier weapon that has come to be called the “traction trebuchet”, the original version with pulling men instead of a counterweight.

The counterweight trebuchet appeared in both Christian and Muslim lands around the Mediterranean in the twelfth century. It could fling three-hundred-pound projectiles at high speeds into enemy fortifications. On occasion, disease-infected corpses were flung into cities in an attempt to infect the people under siege—a medieval variant of biological warfare. Trebuchets appear in China in about the 4th century BC and in Europe in the 6th century AD, and did not become obsolete until the 16th century, well after the introduction of gunpowder. Trebuchets were far more accurate than other medieval catapults.

The basic workings of a trebuchet

The mangonel had poorer accuracy than a trebuchet . The mangonel threw projectiles on a lower trajectory and at a higher velocity than the trebuchet with the intention of destroying walls, rather than hurling projectiles over them.

A trebuchet works by using the mechanical advantage principle of leverage to propel a stone or other projectile much farther and more accurately than a catapult, which swings off of the ground. The sling and the arm swing up to the vertical position, where usually assisted by a hook, one end of the sling releases, propelling the projectile towards the target with great force.

Many advancements have been made upon the trebuchet. Scientists are still in argument over whether the ancients used wheels to absorb some of the excess and put it back into the projectile. It is known that troughs, often rotated in either direction for aiming, were used for the projectile to slide along, thus increasing accuracy. A bar placed at the stopping point of the arm may have been used to take more advantage of the wood 's natural springiness, though this much more resembles a catapult.

Trebuchets vs. Torsion

The trebuchet is often confused with the earlier, less powerful engines. The main difference is that a torsion engine uses a twisted rope or twine to provide power, whereas a trebuchet uses a counterweight on a fulcrum, usually much closer to the fulcrum than the payload for mechanical advantage, though this is not necessary. A trebuchet also usually has a sling holding the projectile, which provides a larger arc without having to have a taller trebuchet, because it can be tucked underneath.

Both trebuchets and torsion engines are classified under the generic term "catapult," which includes any non-handheld mechanical device designed to hurl an object without the aid of an explosive substance.
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Floating Arm Trebuchet

A floating arm trebuchet is a modern variant of a trebuchet. The main difference is that an FAT drops the weight straight downwards from a longer height, and the arm is mounted on wheels to keep it from interfering. This increases the energy output, even with an arm with less mechanical advantage.

History

The trebuchet derives from the ancient . A variation of the sling contained a short piece of wood to extend the arm and provide greater leverage. This evolved into the traction trebuchet by the , in which a number of people pull on ropes attached to the short arm of a lever that has a sling on the long arm. This type of trebuchet is smaller and has a shorter range, but is a more portable machine and has a faster rate of fire than larger, counterweight-powered types. The smallest traction trebuchets could be powered by the weight and pulling strength of one person using a single rope, but most were designed and sized for between 15 and 45 men, generally two per rope. These teams would sometimes be local citizens helping in the siege or in the defense of their town. Traction trebuchets had a range of 100 to 200 feet when casting weights up to 250 pounds. It is believed that the first traction trebuchets were used by the Mohists in China as early as in the 5th century BCE, descriptions of which can be found in the .

The traction trebuchet next appeared in Byzantium. The ''Strategikon'' of Emperor Maurice, composed in the late 6th century, calls for "ballistae revolving in both directions," , probably traction trebuchets . The ''Miracles of St. Demetrius'', composed by John I, archbishop of Thessalonike, clearly describe traction trebuchets in the Avaro-Slav artillery: "Hanging from the back sides of these pieces of timber were slings and from the front strong ropes, by which, pulling down and releasing the sling, they propel the stones up high and with a loud noise."

There is some doubt as to the exact period in which traction trebuchets, or knowledge of them, reached Scandinavia. The Vikings may have known of them at a very early stage, as the monk Abbo de St. Germain reports on the in his epic ''De bello Parisiaco'' dated about CE 890 that engines of war were used. Another source mentions that Nordic people or "the Norsemen" used engines of war at the siege of Angers as early as CE 873.

The first clearly written record of a counterweight trebuchet comes from an Islamic scholar, Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, who wrote a military manual for Saladin circa 1187. He describes a hybrid trebuchet that he said had the same hurling power as a traction machine pulled by fifty men due to "the constant force , whereas men differ in their pulling force." .

He allegedly wrote "Trebuchets are machines invented by unbelieving devils." . This suggests that by the time of Saladin, Muslims were acquainted with counterweight engines, but did not believe that Muslims had invented them. Al-Tarsusi does not specifically say that the "unbelieving devils" were Christian Europeans, though Saladin was fighting Crusaders for much of his reign, and the manuscript predates the Chinese and Mongol weapons . They took about twelve days to build depending on how big the structure was going to be.

In his book, ''Medieval Siege'', Jim Bradbury extensively quotes from Mardi ibn Ali concerning mangonels of various types, including Arab, Perisan and Turkish, describing what could be trebuchets, but not quoted as above. In ''On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions'' , more detailed quotes by Mardi ibn Ali may be found on the various types of trebuchets, including the "Christian" type used by the Crusaders.

P.E. Chevedden states that his recent research shows that trebuchets reached the eastern Mediterranean by the late 500s, were known in Arabia and were used with great effect by Islamic armies. The technological sophistication for which Islam later became known was already manifest. He says that in particular, Islamic technical literature has been neglected. The most important surviving technical treatise on these machines is Kitab Aniq fi al-Manajaniq , written in 1462 by Yusuf ibn Urunbugha al-Zaradkash. One of the most profusely illustrated Arabic manuscripts ever produced, it provides detailed construction and operating information.

Chevedden further states: Engineers thickened walls to withstand the new artillery and redesigned fortifications to employ trebuchets against attackers. Architects working under al-Adil , Saladin’s brother and successor, introduced a defensive system that used gravity-powered trebuchets mounted on the platforms of towers to prevent enemy artillery from coming within effective range. These towers, designed primarily as artillery emplacements, took on enormous proportions to accommodate the larger trebuchets, and castles were transformed from walled enclosures with a few small towers into clusters of large towers joined by short stretches of curtain walls. The towers on the citadels of Damascus, Cairo and Bosra are massive structures, as large as 30 meters square.

At the Siege of Acre in 1191, Richard the Lionheart assembled two trebuchets which he named "God's Own Catapult" and "Bad Neighbour". During a siege of Stirling Castle in 1304, ordered his engineers to make a giant trebuchet for the English army, named "Warwolf". Range and size of the weapons varied. In 1421 the future Charles VII of France commissioned a trebuchet that could shoot a stone of 800 kg, while in 1188 at Ashyun, rocks up to 1,500 kg were used. Average weight of the projectiles was probably around 50-100 kg, with a range of ca. 300 meters. Rate of fire could be noteworthy: at the siege of Lisbon , two engines were capable of launching a stone every 15 seconds. Also human corpses could be used in special occasion: in 1422 Prince , for example, in the siege of Karl?tejn shot men and manure within the enemy walls, apparently managing to spread infection among the defenders.

Counterweight trebuchets do not appear with certainty in Chinese historical records until about CE 1268, when the Mongols laid siege to Fancheng and Xiangyang, although Joseph Needham has propounded the view that Qiang Shen, a Chinese commander of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234, may have invented an early counterweight engine independently in CE 1232 . At the , the Mongol army, unable to capture the cities despite besieging the defenders for years, brought in two Persian engineers who built hinged counterweight trebuchets and soon reduced the cities to rubble, forcing the surrender of the garrison. These engines were called by the Chinese historians the Huihui Pao or Xiangyang Pao , because they were first encountered in that battle.

The largest trebuchets needed exceptional quantities of timber: at the siege of Damietta, in 1249, Louis IX of France was able to build a stockade for the whole Crusade camp with the wood from 24 captured Egyptian trebuchets.

With the introduction of gunpowder, the trebuchet lost its place as the siege engine of choice to the cannon. Trebuchets were used both at the siege of Burgos and . The last recorded military use was by Hernán Cortés, at the 1521 siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán. Accounts of the attack note that its use was motivated by the limited supply of gunpowder. The attempt was reportedly unsuccessful: the first projectile landed on the trebuchet itself, destroying it.

In 1779 British forces defending Gibraltar, finding that their cannons were unable to fire far enough for some purposes, constructed a trebuchet. It is unknown how successful this was: the Spanish attackers were eventually defeated, but this was largely due to a sortie.

Models

Today, smaller trebuchets are built for school science and history fairs, competitions or as a hobby. These can be purchased from s, or from several online stores. Models range from small, 1/30th scale models to full size trebuchets.

A full-scale trebuchet, claimed to be the worlds largest, is at Warwick Castle. The Warwick Trebuchet is 18 metres tall and weighs 22 tons; it is made from English Oak, with a throwing arm of Ash. Constructed in 2005, from 13th century notes and drawings, it is in regular operation, firing twice a day between March and October.

Ancestral home

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In Chinese culture and , hometown or ancestral home is the place of origin of one's extended family. It may or may not be the place where one is born. For instance, Tsung-Dao Lee was born in Shanghai, China, but his hometown is listed as Suzhou.

A person's ancestral home is a rather vague concept, which can be defined by the birth place of ''any'' of his or her patriline ancestors. Su Shi limited it to five generations, i.e. it refers to the home of one's great-great-grandfather. Even more broadly, an ancestral home can refer to the first locality where a came to be established or prominent. Commonly, a person usually defines his/her hometown as what his/her father considers to be his ancestral home. In practice, most people would define their ancestral homes as the birthplace of their patriline ancestors from the early 20th Century, around the time when government authorities began to collect such information from individuals.

Moreover, a person's ancestral home can be defined in any level of locality, from province and county down to town and village, depending on how much an individual knows about his/her ancestry. For example, Bruce Lee's ancestral hometown is, in full, Guangdong Province, Shunde District, Jun'an Town .

The Chinese emphasis on a person's ancestral home is a legacy of its history as an agrarian society, where a family would often be tied to its land for generations. In Chinese culture, the importance of family and regional identity are such that a person's ancestral home or birthplace plays an important social role in personal identity. For instance, at a university, students who hail from the same region will often become members of the regional/hometown association or club for other people with the same background. Discussion of personal or ancestral origins is typical when two people meet for the first time. In recent years, the root-seeking movement has led to greater interest in ancestral hometowns, especially among overseas Chinese.

Ancestral home is an item to be filled in many documents in the People's Republic of China, as well as in pre-1997 Hong Kong. Likewise s and s issued in Taiwan by the Republic of China government formerly carried an entry for "home citizenship" . Citizens would usually have their ancestral home stated on these documents, despite, as in the case of many Mainlanders born in Taiwan to parents, having never set foot in their ancestral home. This practice was abolished by the government in the mid-1990s amid the Taiwan localization movement.

Culture of China

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The Culture of China is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex civilizations covering a history of over 5,000 years. The nation covers a large geographical region with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and . Chinese culture is a broad term used to describe the cultural foundation, even among Chinese-speaking regions outside of mainland China.

People in the culture

Identity

Many have existed in China. In terms of the numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group is the Han Chinese. Throughout history, many groups have been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions. The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional cultural identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the .

Regional

Traditional Chinese Culture covers a large geographical territories, each region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Using modern names, here are some distinction:

* The Yangtze River areas include Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang and Jiangsu.

Society

Structure

Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the , and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law. Since the late Zhou Dynasty , traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations. However, this system did not cover all social groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty . also has a long history; ever since the Sui Dynasty educated candidates prepared for the Imperial examinations that drafted exam graduates into government as scholar-bureaucrats. Trades and crafts were usually taught by a sifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi and would expand upon this. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the customs and rituals found in society.

Values

Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism with a combination of conservatism. The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism, and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the next-life.

Language

Spoken Chinese has consisted of a number of throughout history. In the Ming Dynasty standard Mandarin was nationalized. Even so, it wasn't until the Republic of China era in the 1900s when there was any noticeable result in promoting a common unified .

The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly reserved for scholars and intellectuals. By the 20th century, millions of citizens, especially those outside of the imperial court were illiterate. Countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food preparation process. Overtime, many dishes became part of the everyday-citizen culture. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion. Arguably all branches of or even American Chinese food are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.

Leisure

A number of and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mah Jong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as . Others include Pai Gow, Pai gow poker and other games. Go proverb and Xiangqi is also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture.

Gallery

Comets in Chinese culture

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In some Chinese cultures, comets are believed to bring bad luck to mankind.

In a Chinese family, daughters-in-law are considered outsiders and are blamed for creating problems in the family, especially with their mother-in-law. Because of this, they are often referred to as a "comet." E.g. "Oh my God, my son married a comet!"

A wife who is a comet has been known to bring down the fortune of not only her husband, but the wealth and well-being of the entire family.

However, the usage of 'comet' is not only limited to daughters-in-law. It is also used on other familial outsiders such as maids, employees, and others.

Color in Chinese culture

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Color in Chinese culture refers to the various colors that are considered auspicious or inauspicious .

Red

A red envelope is a monetary gift which is given in Chinese society during holiday or special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck.

Red is strictly forbidden at funerals as it is a traditionally symbolic color of happiness.

Green

Generally green is associated with "health prosperity, and harmony" but green hats are associated with infidelity, which causes trouble for Catholic bishops, whose coat of arms have green hats on them.

White

Unlike the Western meanings of purity, chastity, holiness and cleanliness, White is associated with death and is used predominantly in funerals in Chinese culture.

Black

Black is a neutral color used in daily clothing but is also used during a funeral to symbolize mourning. A black cloth of some sort is usually hung over the dead person's picture.

Blue or Dark Blue

Blue or Dark blue is also a color for sombre occasions like funerals and deaths.

Classical Chinese medicine

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Classical Chinese medicine is notably different from traditional Chinese medicine . CCM represents the medicine and its evolution over the past two millennia. It is distinct from, yet shares history and much information with Traditional Chinese Medicine . Classical Chinese medicine refers to Chinese medicine that takes seriously its ancient roots, using classical texts and the skills that emerge from studying them, as the basis for medical practice. It is distinct from TCM insofar that TCM represents efforts to replant Chinese medicine in the soil of Western medicine.

Chinese medicine has been practiced for well over two thousand years and its effectiveness has been experienced by millions of people. Throughout time it has evolved and changed, but its fundamental roots have always remained the same. As Western influences threatened the validity of Chinese medicine, a movement began to develop to selectively thin out any aspect of the medicine that might not be acceptable to the Western scientific tradition. TCM is an outgrowth of this movement and as a result, many of the classical traditions were put aside.

Classical Chinese medicine takes into account this entire history. A classical education compares the new developments and "Westernized" models of Chinese medicine with the classical form of the medicine and searches for the roots in both, seeking what the founders of Chinese medicine sought. In studying this, it has been found that classical Chinese medicine became canonized and collated to a definitive degree during the Han dynasty . Therefore, classical Chinese medicine remains focused upon these early fundamental establishments. Later developments can be understood through this lens. TCM therefore can be understood by classically trained practitioners, but a TCM education does not provide an understanding of the classical tradition.

Recently however, there has been a resurgence in the interest in learning and practicing CCM. To learn CCM traditionally one had to be part of a family lineage of the medicine. This family lineage protected its knowledge and practice to ensure the prosperity of future generations. Recently, however, there has been a resurgence in interest in CCM in China, Europe and United States. CCM can be learned in more contemporary ways

Classical texts

The foundation of classical Chinese medicine as a contemporary clinical science is the reading, analyzing and clinical use of classical texts. What is considered classical is up for debate, but the list certainly includes:

Shang Han Lun/ Jinkui Yaolue - The Treatise on Cold Damage/ Essentials of the Golden Cabinet, written in the Han dynasty by Zhang Zhong Jing

Huangdi Neijing - The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine

The Huangdi Neijing is composed of the Suwen and the Lingshu
The Shennong Ben Cao Jing

also included are:

-- The Pulse Classic
-- The Classic of Difficulties, attributed to Bian Que of the Warring States Period, but most likely a Han Dynasty text
"the Jia Yi Jing" -- the Yellow Emperor's Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion; compiled by Huang-fu Mi , also published by Blue Poppy Press Inc.
- The Classic of the Central Viscera, written by Hua Tuo

Chinese wedding album

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A Chinese wedding album is an elaborate book of pictures that became a part of s in the late 20th century.

The album usually consists of many pictures of the bride and groom taken at various locations with many different costumes. In Singapore, these costumes often include wedding costumes belonging to different cultures, including Arab and wedding costumes.

In contrast to Western wedding pictures, the Chinese wedding album usually does not contain pictures of the actual ceremony and wedding itself. In Hong Kong, however, pictures of the ceremony and wedding are taken as well.

Chinese spiritual world concepts

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Chinese spiritual world concepts are cultural practices or methods found in . Some fit in the realms of a particular religion, others do not. In general these concepts were uniquely evolved from the Chinese values of filial piety, tacit acknowledgment of the existence of the three realms Heaven, the Living and the Deceased, and the belief in causality and reincarnation, with or without religious overtones.

Practices and Beliefs

* Ancestral worship - A practice to honor the deeds and memories of the deceased. This is an extension to the filial piety from the teachings of Confucius and Laozi. Elders, seniors, extended families and particularly parents are to be respected, heeded and looked after. Respects continue after their deaths. Other than the Qingming and Chongyang festivals, descendants should pay tributes to ancestors during the ''Zhongyuanjie'', more commonly known as the Ghost Festival. Traditionally, other than the tombstones or urn-covers, descendants are expected to install altar in their homes to which they would pay homage regularly in the day, with joss sticks and tea. The ancestors, parents or grandparents, are worshiped or venerated as if they are still living.

* Three Realms - the belief of the Heaven, the Living and the Deceased exist side by side, the heaven a place for the saints or rested souls, hell for the criminous deceased. Historically the concepts were passed down from Taoist priests or Buddhist monks, until the writings in the late 19th century to 20th century like ''Understanding Heaven and Hell'' , ''Journeys to the Under-World'' , ''Tiantang Yiuchi'' , ''The Feast of Immortal Feast'' appeared. Almost all of these books appear only in Chinese with no English translation, and were generally shunned as superstitious fictions by scholars. It is an accepted Chinese belief that the living could contact the heaven with prayers in temples and with the dead by sense.

* Gan - The living world where people exist in reality is referred to as Yang gan . The underworld where spirits exist after death is regarded as Yum gan , though this is not necessarily a negative place such as hell or diyu.

Gifts or Skills

In Tiantang Yiuchi a mortal visited with ''Lingbao Tianchun'' one of the Three Pure Ones who explained in details the 36 ways to manipulate the heavens and the 72 ways to manipulate the surroundings and their applications.

Incredulous the whole 108 ''skills'' may seem, these were once gifts granted by the heavens to the mortal, to humble and to help persuade the mortals to the right ways. These skills range from alchemy or turning stone to gold, summoning rain, wind or thunder, exorcism, summoning deity to name but few, were first depicted in the Fengshen Yanyi, in the deeds and heroism of Zhong Kui , as well as in many folklores throughout the ages. According to the other guidance books, the lines between the three Realms were not marked originally, in fact hell was created in the Zhou Dynasty a later addition. Before then gifted mortals could communicate, summon and perform feats similar to those of deities. These become the core ''concepts'' or beliefs in the spiritual world in China.

Stereotypes were created in movies heralding from Hong Kong putting off some of these gifts as pure superstitions, admittedly much of which were accurate. For example practitioners from Maoshan school, an offshoot of Taoism were commonly depicted as rogue daoshi with vice in mind rather than virtue. No scholastic work have ever been done to verify if these were occults, fictions or contrivance. ''Lingbao Tianchun'' explained in ''Tiantang Yiuchi'' that these gifts were once practised by authorized agents or Taoist daoshi or priests who would come to aid those in need or in oppression, however as many had perverted the usage in the proper way thus making the heaven revoked these ''licenses'' as it were.

Modes of Communications

* - planchette writing is practiced using either a rattan sieve or a wooden stylus to write Chinese characters in sand or incense ashes. This Chinese tradition of automatic writing continues to be practiced in Daoist temples in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China.

* Mun mai - is the communication directly with spirits / ancestors / people who have passed away. The most common usage is for finding and contacting deceased relatives or loved ones. It is an extremely rare skill within Chinese culture nowadays. The general cultural term is that people are raised from the underground or down from heaven to communicate. A western comparison is likely seance or necromancy. One of the most well known western individual born with this unique ability is John Edward.

* Yum si lou - is the idea of flooding the spiritual road with to ensure the person who died will reach their destination safely. In Chinese culture, the road to heaven, diyu or reincarnation may not be clear. By overloading the path with spiritual money, hopefully all troubled souls on the way will be too occupied with the money and leave the traveling-soul alone. This is an assurance for the living.

* Villain hitting - is a folk popular in the Guangdong area of China including Hong Kong used to demonic exorcising.

* Tone ling - is to tunnel and channel through to communicate with spirits.

Figures

* Guiren - Someone who can help you. Or is destined to help you.

* Xiaoren - Someone who can hurt you. Or is destined to hurt you. Simple methods such as kau cim can usually inform you whether a guiren or xiaoren is visible in your near future.

Objects

* Peach wood sword - the definitive weapon used for demon exorcism during Taoist exorcism. The ones from Long Mountain in Jiangxi province are particularly valued as the premium quality peach wood swords. Supposedly goddess Nüwa dropped the tablet with the inscription on Chi You and scared him off. Yellow Emperor have since put the same inscription everywhere to scare off Chi You.

* Spirit tablet - a spiritual home in your house for ancestor spirits.

Chinese pre-wedding customs

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Chinese Wedding Customs — The Pre-Wedding Period

Selection of auspicious dates 看日子
long dates required for the Chinese wedding, the betrothal and the installation of the bridal bed. A Chinese monk, a temple official cool fortune teller are able to advise on a suitable date based on the couple's birth dates and times. Some may also refer to the Chinese calendar or almanac for good days. Usually, even numbered months and dates are preferred, and the lunar seventh month is avoided as it is the month of the Hungry Ghost Festival.

After the selection of the auspicious dates, wedding details such as types and quantities of betrothal gifts, return gifts, bride's price 娉金, and number of tables at the wedding banquet provided by the groom's parents for the bride's parents' guest are decided on.

Betrothal 过大礼/纳彩
Up to a month and at least three days before the wedding day, the groom and a friend or a matchmaker will deliver the betrothal gifts on the auspicious date chosen.

Western and Chinese wedding cakes and peanut candies, together with two bottles of brandy, at least six tins of canned pork legs and even number of oranges are included in the wedding gift baskets. Two pairs of dragon and phoenix candles 龙凤烛are also included. Also included is gold jewellery from the groom's parents to the bride, such as the Cantonese Dragon and phoenix bangle 龙凤琢 or the teochew's four items of gold四点金.

Some include the bride's price with the betrothal gifts, whereas some will only present it when the groom fetches the bride.

In the return gifts, the 2 bottles of brandy will be replaced with 2 bottles of orange syrup. An even numbered portion of all the other gifts are returned to the groom's family together with the 2 phoenix candles. The bride's side will light the 2 dragon candles and the groom's side the phoenix candles on the morning of the wedding day.

Some hokkien families will also ask for a bunch of bananas and red dates to be included in the return gifts. A red packet for the groom's parents to buy shoes is required. The bride will also present towels to the parents, grandparents, aunt, uncles and groom's siblings.

After the betrothal, the Chinese wedding invitations are distributed

Delivery of the bride's dowry 送嫁妆
The bride's parents may include the bride's dowry with the return gifts on the day of betrothal or deliver the dowry a few days before the wedding. The Chinese dowry typically include

- beddings such as pillows, bolsters, comforter set, blankets, bed sheets, etc., all tied with red ribbons;
- new clothes in a suitcase for the bride ;
- tea set for the wedding tea ceremony;
- baby bathtub, potty, face washbasin, tumblers, toothpaste and toothbrushes, mirror, comb;
- two pairs of red wooden clogs wedding slippers or bedroom slippers;
- sewing basket with even numbered rolls of colourful thread, needles, pincushion, scissors, and sewing wax with auspicious words on it;
- gold jewellery given by bride's parents.

Install the bridal bed 按床
A good fortune woman will install the bridal bed in the bridal room up to 12 days before the wedding day on an auspicious date. New red or pink bedsheets are used and a plate of dried longans, lotus seeds, red dates, persimmons, sprig of pomegranate leaves together with 2 red packets are placed on the bed. A pair of bedside lamps is lit to symbolize adding sons to the family.

Hair combing ceremony 梳头
Good fortune women will conduct this ceremony for the bride and groom in their respective homes the night before the Chinese wedding. After showering with water infused with pomelo or pomegranate leaves, the bride and groom will change into a new set of clothing and shoes. The good fortune women will bless them aloud as they sit in front of an open window with a visible moon or in front of the mirror.

The four blessings are:

一梳梳到尾，
二梳百年好合，
三梳子孙满堂，
四梳白发齐眉。

Sweet pink rice ball soup汤圆 will be served after the hair combing ceremony to wish the couple a complete and sweet marriage.

Chinese wedding decorations 大喜装饰Double joy 双喜stickers will be placed on all wedding items such as the betrothal gifts, dowry, the couple's toiletries and cosmetics. The bridal room furniture, especially the mirror and cupboards, will also be decorated with double joy or other wedding paper cutouts such as pairs of mandarin ducks, dragon and phoenix, etc. Similar red wedding paper cutouts will also be put up on the main door, bridal room door and generally around the house.

A red banner 红彩帘 will be hung across the front doors of the two household to announce the joyous event.

Chinese patriarchy

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Chinese patriarchy refers to the history and prevalence of male dominance in Chinese society and culture.

Mencius outlined the Three Subordinations. A woman was to be subordinate to her father in youth, her husband in maturity, and her son in old age.

A cliché of classical texts, which is repeated throughout the tradition, is the familiar notion that men govern the outer world, while women govern the home.

In the Han dynasty, the female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women, advice on how women should behave. She outlines the Four Virtues women must abide by, proper virtue, proper speech, proper countenance, proper merit. The "three subordinations and the four virtues" is a common four-character phrase throughout the imperial period.

As for the historical development of Chinese patriarchy, women's status was highest in the Tang dynasty, when women played sports and were generally freer in fashion and conduct. Between the Tang and Song dynasties, a fad for little feet arose, and from the Song dynasty onwards footbinding became more and more common for the elite. In the Ming dynasty, a tradition of virtuous widowhood developed. Widows, even if widowed at a young age, would be expected not to remarry. Their virtuous names might be displayed on the arch at the entrance of the village.

Symptoms of patriarchy in 20th and 21st century China include the immense pressure on women to get married before the age of 30, and the incidence of female infanticide associated with China's one child policy. However, footbinding has been eradicated and trafficking in women in China has greatly reduced.

Chinese marriage

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Chinese marriage is a ceremonial ritual within societies that involve a marriage established by . Within Chinese culture, romantic love was allowed, and monogamy was the norm for most ordinary citizens.

Etymology

In more ancient writings for the word 婚姻, the former has the 昏 beside the 女 . This implies that the wedding ceremony is performed in the evening, which is deemed as time of fortune. Similarly, 姻 is the same as 因 . According to Zhang Yi's ''Guangya Shigu'' , a dictionary of ancient Chinese characters, 因 means "friendliness", "love" and "harmony", indicating the correct way of living for a married couple.

Marriage in a Confucian context

In thought, marriage is of grave significance both to families and to society as well as being important for the cultivation of virtue. Traditionally incest has been defined as marriage between people with the same surname. From the perspective of a Confucian family, marriage brings together families of different and so continues the family line of the paternal . This is generally why having a boy is more preferred than a girl when giving birth. Therefore, the benefits and demerits of any marriage are important to the entire family, not just the individual couples. Socially, the married couple is thought to be the basic unit of society. In Chinese history there have been many times when marriages have affected the country’s political stability and international relations. From the Han Dynasty onward, the rulers of certain powerful foreign tribes such as the Mongolians, the Manchus, the Xiongnu, and the demanded women from the Imperial family. Many periods of Chinese history were dominated by the families of the wife or mother of the ruling Emperor. Thus marriage can be related to politics.

Prehistoric Chinese marriages

Marriages in early societies

In traditional Chinese thinking, people in "primitive" societies did not marry, but had sexual relationships with one and other indiscriminately. Such people were thought to live like animals, and they did not have the precise concept of motherhood, fatherhood, sibling, husband and wife, and gender, not to mention match-making and marriage ceremony. Part of the Confucian "civilizing mission" was to define what it meant to be a Father or a Husband, and to teach people to respect the proper relationship between family members and regulate sexual behavior.

Sibling marriages

Sibling marriage, although forbidden in Chinese culture, was reported to a minor extent in very early Chinese mythology. There was a story about the marriage of Nüwa and Fu Xi, who were once sister and brother respectively. At that time the world was unpopulated. The siblings wanted to get married but, at the same time, they felt ashamed. So they went up to Kunlun Shan and prayed to Heaven. They asked for Heaven's permission for their marriage and said, “if You allow us to marry, please make the mist surround us.” Heaven gave permission to the couple, and promptly the peak was covered in mist. It is said that in order to hide her shyness, Nüwa covered her blushing face with a fan. Nowadays in some villages in China, the brides still follow the custom and use a fan to shield their faces.

Inter-clan marriage and antithetic marriage

In Chinese society males should not marry females of the same surname . This is seen as incest and it is thought there is a risk that abnormal births might result. Marriage of a son to close relatives of his mother, however, is not seen as incest. Different clans might have more than one surname. Historically, there were numerous important clans living along the Yellow River in ancient China, like the tribe of Huang Di with the common surname Ji and that of Yan Di with the surname Jiang. Because marriage to one's maternal relatives was not thought of as incest these families sometimes intermarried from one generation to another.

Over time Chinese people became more geographically mobile. Couples were married in what is called an extra-clan marriage, better known as antithetic marriage. This occurred in the midst of the New Stone Age, i.e. around 5000 BC. According to modern Chinese scholars of a Marxist persuasion, matriarchy prevailed in society at that time, therefore husbands needed to move to, and live with, their wives’ families. Yet individuals remained members of their biological families. When a couple died, the husband and the wife were buried separately in the respective clan’s graveyard. Offspring would be buried with their mother. Antithetic marriage still happens in modern China. In Yunnan, males and females in the minority group known as Mosuo have a walking marriage. A man calls his partner "Ahxia" and a woman calls her partner “Ahchu” rather than “husband and wife”.

Maternal marriage and monogamy

In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife’s home. This happened in the transformation of antithetic marriage into monogamy, which signifies that the decline of matriarchy and the growing dominance of patriarchy in the ancient China.

Traditional marriage rituals

Chinese marriage became a custom between 402-221 B.C. Despite China's long history and many different geographical areas, there are basically six rituals, generally known as the three letters and six etiquette

Three Letters

The marriage is initiated by a series of three letters.
* The ''request letter'' is sent from the groom's family to the bride's family, and formally requests a marriage.
* The ''gift letter'' accompanies the gifts of the groom's family to the bride's family shortly before the wedding.
* The ''wedding letter'' is given on the day of the wedding, officially accepting the bride into the groom's family.

Six Etiquette

* ''Proposal:'' When an unmarried boy's parents find a potential daughter-in-law. They then located a matchmaker whose job was to assuage the conflict of interests and general embarrassments on the part of two families largely unknown to each other when discussing the possibility of marriage.
* ''Birthdates:'' If the potential daughter-in-law's family did not object to the proposal the matchmaker would then compare the couples' birthdates. If according to Chinese astrology the couple is compatible they would then proceed to the next step.
* ''Bride price :'' At this point the bridegroom's family arranges for the matchmaker to present bride price , including the betrothal letter, to the bride's family.
* ''Wedding gifts:'' The groom's family will then send an elaborate array of food, cakes, and religious items to the bride's family.
* ''Arranging the wedding:'' The two families will arrange a wedding day which will bring the most luck to the couple, again based on the Chinese calendar mythology.
* ''Wedding Ceremony:'' The final ritual is the actual wedding ceremony where bride and groom become a married couple, which consists of many elaborate parts
** ''Wedding Procession:'' The wedding procession from bride's home would march to the groom's home. The procession consists of a traditional band, the bride's sedan, the maids of honor's sedans , and bride's dowry in the forms other than money.
** ''Welcoming the Bride:'' The wedding procession of the bride's family stops at the door of the groom's home. There are ceremonies to be followed to welcome the bride and her wedding procession into the groom's home, which varies for locale to locale.
** ''Actual Wedding Ceremonies:'' Equivalent to exchanging vows in the west, the couple would pay respect to the heaven and earth, paying respect to the groom's parents, paying respect to each other.
** '''' In Chinese society, the wedding banquet is known as xǐ-jǐu , and is sometimes far more important than the wedding itself. There are ceremonies such as bride presenting wines or tea to parents, spouse, and guests.

Before modern times, women were not allowed to choose the person they married. Instead, the family of the bride picked the prospective husband. Marriages were chosen based upon the needs of reproduction and honor, as well as the need of the father and husband.

Traditional divorce process

In traditional Chinese society, there are three major ways to dissolve a marriage.

The first one is no-fault divorce. According to the legal code of the Tang Dynasty , a marriage may be dissolved due to personal incompatibility, provided that the husband writes a divorce note.

The second way is through a state-mandated annulment of marriage. This applies to when one spouse commits a serious crime against the other or his/her clan.

Finally, the husband may unilaterally declare a divorce. To be legally recognized, however, it must be based on one of the following seven reasons :

* The wife lacks filial piety towards her parents-in-law . This makes the parents-in-law capable of breaking a marriage against both partners' will.
* She fails to bear a son .
* She is vulgar or lewd/adulterous .
* She is jealous . This includes objecting to her husband taking an additional wife or concubine.
* She has a vile disease .
* She is gossipy .
* She commits theft .

Obviously, these reasons can be stretched quite a bit to suit the husband and his family. However there are three clearly defined exceptions , under which the unilateral divorce is disallowed:
* She has no family to return to .
* She had observed a full three-year mourning for a parent-in-law .
* Her husband was poor when they married, and now is rich .

The above law about unilateral divorce was in force from Tang Dynasty to its final abolition in the Republic of China's Civil Code Section 5, passed in 1930.

Polygamy

This section discusses the social and legal aspects of polygamy, mostly polygyny , in traditional Chinese society. The traditional culture does not prohibit or explicitly encourage polygyny .

The scope of practice is limited by the number of available women, as well as the financial resource of the man, since he has to be able to support the women. Therefore polygyny is mostly limited to parts of the upper to middle class; while among the rest of the population monogamy can be regarded as the norm. Historical written records is probably skewed with regard to the actual prevalence of polygamy, since the elite can be safely assumed to be overrepresented in them.

Sororate marriage

Sororate marriage is a custom in which a man marries his wife's sister. Later it is expanded to include her cousins or females from the same clan. The Chinese name is 娣媵 . It can happen at the same time as he marries the first wife, at a later time while the wife is still alive, or after she dies. This practice was frequent among the nobility of Zhou Dynasty, with incidences occurring at later times.

Multiple wives with equal status

* Emperors of some relatively minor dynasties are known to have multiple empresses.

* Created by special circumstances. For example, during wartime a man may be separated from his wife and mistakenly believe that she had died. He remarries, and later the first wife is found to be alive. After they are reunited, both wives may be recognized.

* Qianlong Emperor of Qing dynasty began to allow polygamy for the specific purpose of siring heirs for another branch of the family. Called "multiple inheritance" , if a man is the only son of his father , and his uncle has no son, then with mutual agreement he may marry an additional wife. A male child from this union becomes the uncle's grandson and heir. The process can be repeated for additional uncles.

Beside the traditional desire for male children to carry on the family name, this allowance partially resolves a dilemma created by the emperor himself. He had recently banned all non-patrilineal forms of inheritance, while wanting to preserve the proper order in the Chinese kinship. Therefore, a couple without son cannot adopt one from within the extended family. They either have to adopt from outside , or become heirless. The multiple inheritance marriages provided a way out when the husband's brother has a son.

Concubinage

Women in concubinage are treated as inferior, and expected to be subservient to the wife . The women were not wedded in a whole formal ceremony, had less right in the relationship, and may be divorced arbitrarily. They generally come from lower social status or were bought as slaves. Women who had eloped may also become concubines since a formal wedding requires her parents' participation.

The number of concubines is sometime regulated, which differs according to the men's rank. Emperors almost always have multiple royal concubines.

A somewhat different form of it is the so-called "two primary wives" . Traditionally, a married woman is expected to live with her husband's family. When the husband has to live away from his family, however, she has to stay with her in-laws and take care of them. A man who thus suffers chronic separation from his wife, such as a traveling merchant, may "marry" another woman where he lives and set up a separate household with her. Due to the geographical separation, the second woman often regards herself as a full wife for all practical matters, yet legally this marriage is not recognized, and she is treated as a concubine. In China specifically, in cases where the primary wife fail to have sons to prolong the , a secondary wife is allowed by law via the sing-song girls concept.

This practice has influenced the recent surge of polygamy in mainland China. Since the opening of China's border in the 1970s, businessmen from Hong Kong and Taiwan started setting up "secondary wives" in the mainland. Since then the practice has spread to local affluent men.

According to Chinese criminal law, married people who leave home to live with their lovers are considered to have committed bigamy.

Polyandry

Polyandry, the practice of one woman having multiple husbands, is traditionally considered immoral, prohibited by law, and uncommon in practice. However, there are instances in which a man in poverty rents or pawns his wife temporarily.

Chinese kinship

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The system is classified as a Sudanese kinship system used to define family. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work ''Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family'', the Sudanese system is one of the six major kinship systems together with , , , , and .

The Sudanese kinship system , is the most complicated of all kinship systems. It maintains a separate designation for almost every one of ego's kin based on their generation, their lineage, their relative age, and their gender.

In the Chinese kinship system:
* Maternal and paternal lineages are distinguished. For example, a mother's brother and a father's brother have different terms.
* The relative age of a sibling relation is considered. For example, a father's younger brother has a different terminology than his older brother.
* The gender of the relative is distinguished, like in .
* The generation from ego is indicated, like in English.

Chinese kinship is agnatic, emphasising patrilineality.

Kinship and Chinese societies

Literature and history

Kinship terms have already appeared in the earliest Chinese lexicon ''Erya''. Chapter Four 釋親 is dedicated to explain kinship and marriage. Another lexicon from late Han Dynasty ''Shiming'' has a detail list of form of address of all relatives.

With the influence of Confucianism, the concepts of kinship and consanguinity are deeply ingrained in Chinese culture. One of Confucian teachings is filial piety, where it is extended to a series of five relationships known as the ''Five Cardinal Relationships'', . three of which are related to the family:

*ruler and subject ,
*father and son ,
*elder and younger brother ,
*husband and wife ,
*between friends

In the ''Three Character Classic'', the nine agnates are listed in the following stanza:

Culture

In Chinese culture where the extended family is still valued, kinship terms are ensured to survive well into current usage. Also, since it is taboo to refer to or address a more senior family relation by his or her given name, the kinship term is the only possible term of address. In the case where there are multiple siblings such as found in many Post-World War II baby boom families, the relation is distinguished and addressed according to their age or rank. For example 大 is address for 大姨 ; 二姨 ; 三姨 etc.

Because some of these terms have no equivalent in foreign languages, they are not easily translated and the descriptiveness often lost in translation. On the other hand, translating kinship terms from other languages often presents the problem of ambiguity as there is no equivalent general term like "aunt" for example.

Despite the complexity of the kinship address system , it is common to simplify it for the sake of familiarity. Some formal kinship terms are not familiar to many people, cumbersome, or that it is not preferred by the addressee. For example, a cousin-once-removed may at her discretion be referred to as simply a cousin if she is of a similar age as the speaker. In cases where a junior ranked family member is older than his more senior relation, such as an uncle, it is common to address the senior relation with a diminutive suffix.

Law

The ''Great Qing Legal Code'' was the last set of Chinese laws where the complete kinship terms were shown. The Qing code not only confirmed the importance of defining kinship relations, but also defined the legal and moral conducts between family relations. Although there was no specific statute in the Qing code to define kinship terms, it specified the mourning attire and ritual appropriate according to the relation between the mourner and the deceased. Kinship relationships also played a crucial role in the administration of justice under the Qing. Penalties were more severe for crimes committed against senior relatives within the family hierarchy. Crimes committed against those outside of the extended family were punished less harshly. Crimes committed by senior family members against their inferiors were least likely to elicit harsh sentences.

Among the 47 statutes added in 1740 under Qianlong Emperor, Statute 2 and Statute 3 dealt with mourning attire completed with charts. According to Qing law, one had to observe a period of mourning when a relative died. The closer and more senior the deceased family member, the longer the period of mourning is dictated by law. The mourning period range from three months to three years. During this period, the bereaved had to stay at home, excuse himself from public service, refrain from celebrations of all sorts, and practice abstinence, among other things.

The "extermination of nine kindreds" is considered one of the most severe punishments found in traditional Chinese law enforced until the end of Qing. The practice of exterminating the kins had been established since when Emperor Qin Shi Huang declared "Those who criticize the present with that of the past: ''Zu''" . ''Zu'' referred to the "extermination of three kindreds" : father, son and grandson. The extermination was to ensure the elimination of challenges to the throne and political enemies. Emperor Wen of Sui abolished the practice but it was reintroduced by succeeding . Not only did he bring back the punishment, but he also extended it to the nine kindreds.

In the first year of reign of Yongle Emperor , prominent historian Fāng Xìao-rú elicited the offense worthy of the "extermination of nine kindreds" for refusing to write the and for insulting the Emperor. He was recorded as saying in defiant to the would-be Emperor: "莫說九族，十族何妨！" . Thus he was granted his wish with perhaps the only and infamous case of "extermination of ten kindreds" in the history of China. In addition to the blood relations from his nine-agnates family hierarchy, his students and peers were added to be the 10th group. Altogether 873 people were said to have been executed.

To this day, a three-character Cantonese term citing the "death to the entire family" remains a powerful term in the Cantonese language.

Clan

A Chinese clan is a patrilineal and patrilocal group of related Chinese people with a common surname sharing a common ancestor. In southern China, clan members could form a village known as an ancestral village. In Hong Kong, clan settlement is exemplified by . An ancestral village usually features a hall and shine honouring ancestral clan members. A clan can be found recording male members of the clan. A married woman is considered part of her husband's clan.

Marriage and divorce

Marriage is an important rite signifying the coming together of two clans, and the beginning of a new family unit.

Polygamy

Polygamy had been practised in Chinese societies for thousands of years. Since the Han Dynasty, Chinese men have been able to legally have only one wife. It was common for privileged Chinese men to have a wife and various , however. For those who could afford a dowry and support a family of multiple concubines and children, polygyny provided a better chance of issuing heirs. The importance of this was apparent in the imperial court usually housing hundreds of concubines. Aside from concubinage, having multiple wives with equal status was also accepted prior to the ban of polygamy.

In a concubinage situation, the wife, concubines and their children would live in the same household. Wives and concubines would often refer to each other as "sisters". As a concubine was not wedded in a marriage ceremony, she had fewer rights in the household. There was also no inter-clan relation between the man's clan and the concubine's own kin.

Polygamy was banned in China in 1930 when the Republic of China government promulgated Civil Code where Section 985 states "A person who has a spouse may not contract another marriage. A person shall not marry with two or more persons simultaneously." . This is still in effect today in the territories under effective administration of the Republic of China including Taiwan and Kinmen and Matsu. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China by the Chinese Communists on the mainland, this banning is reaffirmed in the passage of the Marriage Code of 1950. In Hong Kong, new polygomous marriages were no longer legally allowed after 1971 with the passage of the Marriage Act. Despite this, incidents of extramarital affairs are rising. Some men have even established a family with their mistresses and children kept secret to their wives. There is a phenomenon of cross-border polygyny usually involving Hong Kong men and their mistresses living in Mainland China.

Heir-apparent

Demographics

With modern Chinese governments advocating for smaller families through family planning campaigns and policy-making, large extended family may be a thing of the past. The People's Republic of China introduced its One-child policy in 1979 while The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong began its "Two is enough!" campaign in the 1970s. Contrasted with the large extended families created over pre-war and baby boom years, the average modern Chinese families now have much fewer children.

As of 2006, the fertility rates in Hong Kong and Macau in the world. Hong Kong, ranked the lowest in the world, was the only territory with less than one child born per woman on the average. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked well below the world average. Similarly, the birth rates in Hong Kong and Macau in the world. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked below the median.

A product of rising divorce rates in Chinese societies is the breakdown of the traditionally close-knitted kinship relation. On the other hand, re-marriage could provide more than two sets of paternal or maternal relatives.

Defining kins

Nine grades of relations

The "nine grades of relations" is an important concept when it comes to application of laws and observing rituals. Since the Han Dynasty, there have been two separate interpretations of what is defined by the nine grades. Each interpretation is based on societal and political needs as the ruler of the day see fit.

The "older" interpretation defined the nine grades of relations strictly in the paternal line. That is, nine generations from great-great-grandfather down to great-great-grandchildren. This interpretation was officially recognised after and dynasties. By and dynasties, laws have defined the patrilineality of the nine kindreds. This interpretation was cited in Part III Chapter 2 of Lewis Henry Morgan's 1877 book ''Ancient Societies''.

The "contemporary" interpretation defines the nine grades of relations to be four generations from the paternal line, three from the maternal line, and two from the wife's. Historically, this definition has been used during award, punishment and family annihilation.

Yet another interpretation suggests that "nine" is actually an arbitrary number as nine is considered a large number in Chinese culture. As such, it means anyone and everyone related is to be executed in the context of family annihilation.

Five degrees of mourning attire

The ''five degrees of mourning attire'' define not only the proper attire, but also the proper mourning ritual one should observe when a relative has died. Appearing in writings as early as the ''Rites of Zhou'', mourning rituals developed over the years. By the time of the Qing dynasty, it was set down in law that there were five degrees, or grades of mourning according to the relationship one has with the deceased. The closer a person is related to the deceased, the higher the degree of mourning that is observed. A married female belongs to her husband's clan and observes a similar but lower degree of mourning than her husband. She would observe mourning for a small portion of the members from her own clan. A married man would observe mourning for an even smaller number of relatives of his in-laws.

In a concubinage situation, a concubine was only required to mourn for her husband, his wife, his parents, and all his children including her own, whereas a wife was required to mourn for almost all of her husband's near relatives. In addition, there was no requirement to mourn the death of a concubine except by the man's children.

Since the end of feudal China, the rituals of the five degrees of mourning have largely given way to simpler and less elaborate observance.

Conventionally, clans adopted the five degrees of mourning according to unwritten definitions that determines the difference between close and distant relatives. As such, marriage between relatives that were covered within the five degrees of mourning was considered taboo and immoral. These definitions, unlike the mourning ritual, are still applicable in determining whether a marriage is acceptable, albeit fewer people are familiar with the mourning rituals themselves.

It must be noted however that according to these definitions, many relatives considered "distant" in Western cultures are regarded as close relatives in Chinese culture.

The five degrees of mourning attire in decreasing order of severity are:

* 1. 斬榱 - 3 years
* 2. 齊榱 - 3 years, 1 year, 1 year with staff of mourning, 5 months, 3 months
* 3. 大功 - 9 months, 7 months
* 4. 小功 - 5 months
* 5. 緦麻 - 3 months

Common extended family and terminology

This section covers members and their spouses in the immediate and extended family that is commonly found in the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinity or cousin chart . The terms are listed in Standard Chinese, regional and dialectal usages are listed in the corresponding row. The degrees of mourning attire are included as an indication of how close the relation is to ego and what level of respect is expected. "1" being the highest; "5" being the lowest. "0" means they are not within the definition of the five degrees of mourning. Some of these are common relations and are included for completeness. The degrees of mourning indicated in the table are based on ego as an unmarried member of the family.

General prefixes

* 外 - prefix to indicate maternal lineage on some of the relations
* 堂 - cousins that shares the same surname as ego
* 表 - cousins that do not share the same surname as ego
* 高 - prefix for relations four generations removed senior of ego, ie: great-great-grandparents
* 曾 - prefix for relations three generations removed, ie: great-grandparents; great-grandchildren
* 祖 - prefix for relations two generations removed senior of ego, ie: grandparents , also a general prefix for relations two or more generations senior of ego.
* 孫 - prefix for relations two generations removed junior of ego, ie: grandchildren , also a general prefix for relations two or more generations junior of ego.
* 玄/元 - prefix for relations four generations removed junior of ego, ie: great-great-grandchildren

Members of the nuclear family

Members of the extended family

Larger extended family and terminology

This section covers members and their spouses found beyond the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinity or cousin chart. Although some of the relations seem distant, they are considered close relatives and it is common for Chinese families to have regular contact with these members.

Distant relations

Other than some of the relations mentioned in the previous sections that are not covered under the five degrees of mourning attire, the following are kin that are also considered distant.
* 來孫 - great-great-great-grandchildren
* 昆孫 - great-great-great-great-grandchildren
* 雲孫 - great-great-great-great-great-grandchildren
外 - prefix for maternal line relations; essentially anyone not sharing the same surname as ego

Partial or no consanguinity

The following familial relationship suggests partial or no consanguinity. Most of them are not a modern phenomenon, however. In fact, polygamy was widely accepted in pre- China.

The saying of "three fathers and eight mothers" refers to:
* Cohabiting stepfather
* Non-cohabiting stepfather
* Stepfather from re-marriage of father and mother
* 嫡母 - father's official wife
* 繼母 -
* 養母 - mother
* 慈母 - concubine replacing ego's birth mother who died
* 嫁母 - widowed birth mother who has remarried
* 出母 - birth mother who has been divorced
* 庶母 - father's concubine who is also a mother
* 乳母 - wet nurse
Another saying of "five fathers and ten mothers" refers to
* 生父 - birth father
* 養父 - adopted father
* 繼父 - stepfather
* 義父 -
* 師父 - teacher/coach/master
and two mothers added to the eight mentioned above:
* 生母 - birth mother
* 諸母 - father's concubine

As a result of polygamy there would be half-siblings:
* 同父異母兄弟姐妹 - siblings sharing the same father
* 同母異父兄弟姐妹 - siblings sharing the same mother

Chinese incense culture

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Chinese incense culture refers to the incense formulations and production techniques that were developed in China by the Chinese cultures as well as their usage in daily life. Records on the use and production of Chinese incense can be traced as far back as Spring and Autumn Period where incense play a part in religions and secular life and came into great prominence around Han dynasty

The production of Chinese incense has always been strongly tied to the Traditional Chinese medicine and similar ingredients and processing techniques are used in both incense and medicine production. Consequently Chinese incense also features itself prominently in TCM and is often indicated with physiological and psychological benefits. Although modern Chinese use and contact with incense is primarily though religious ceremonies, traditional Chinese use in dynastic time is largely for bodily wellbeing. Mencius stated regarding incense that it is not simply a item for enjoyment but important for health and wellbeing

Incense use in both secular and religious Chinese culture however was necessitated as time keeping devices, which used calibrated incense sticks and powders note the passage of time.

Chinese ghost marriage

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Chinese ghost marriage, also referred to as ''spirit marriage'', is a marriage in which one or both parties are deceased.. Other forms of ghost marriage are practiced worldwide, from Sudan, to India, to post-WWI France . The origins of Chinese ghost marriage are largely unknown, and reports of it being practiced today can still be found.

Types of ghost marriage

Chinese ghost marriage was usually set up by the family of the deceased and performed for a number of reasons, including: the marriage of a couple previously engaged before one member’s death, to integrate an unmarried daughter into a patrilineage, to ensure the family line is continued, or to maintain that no younger brother is married before an elder brother.

Previously engaged

Upon the death of her fiancé, a bride could choose to go through with the wedding, in which the groom was represented by a white cockerel at the ceremony. However, some girls were hesitant since this form of ghost marriage required her to participate in the funeral ritual, mourning customs , take a vow of celibacy, and immediately take up residence with his family. A groom also had the option of marrying his late fiancée, with no disadvantages, but there have been no records of such weddings.

Women and ghost marriage

Providing a deceased daughter with a patrilineage

When it comes to death customs, an unmarried Chinese woman has no to worship her or care for her as part of a lineage. In every household, an altar is prominently displayed with the tablets of the paternal ancestors and the images of the gods. A married woman’s tablet is kept at the altar of her husband’s family, however, should a woman of eligible age pass away unmarried, her family is prohibited from placing her tablet on the altar of her natal home. Instead, she will be “given a temporary paper tablet, placed not on the domestic altar but in a corner near the door.” Hence, the important duty of Chinese parents in marrying off their children becomes increasingly important for their daughters. Since women are only able to acquire membership in descent lines through marriage, ghost marriage became a viable solution to ensure that unmarried, deceased daughters still had “affiliation to a male descent line”and could be appropriately cared for after death.

Another death custom concerning an unmarried daughter prohibited her from dying in her natal home. Instead, a temple or “Death House” for spinsters was, or families take their daughter to a shed, empty house, or outlying buildings to die.

Living, unmarried daughters

Not only did the Chinese customs concerning death greatly burden the family, but an unmarried daughter became a source of great embarrassment and concern. In Charlotte Ikels “Parental Perspectives on the Significance of Marriage” she reports, “Traditionally, girls who did not marry were regarded as a threat to the entire family and were not allowed to continue living at home. Even in contemporary Hong Kong, I was told that unmarried women are assumed to have psychological problems. Presumably no normal person would remain unmarried voluntarily”. For girls that did in fact choose spinsterhood, “bride-initiated spirit marriage” was a successful “marriage-resistance practice” that allowed them to remain single while still being integrated into a lineage. However, it did come with some negative connotations, being called a “fake spirit-marriage,” or referred to as “marrying a spirit tablet,” and “a way to avoid marriage.”

Continuing the family line

If a son died before marriage, his parents arranged a ghost marriage in order to provide him with to continue the lineage and give him his own descendants. “A man in China does not marry so much for his own benefit as for that of the family: to continue the family name; to provide descendants to keep up the ancestral worship; and to give a daughter-in-law to his mother to wait on her and be, in general, a daughter to her”. A living bride was preferable as a spouse for their deceased son, but if unavailable, a suitable marriage could be set up with a young girl who had recently died. The ceremony itself took on characteristics of both a marriage and a funeral, with the spirit of the deceased bride being ‘led’ by a medium or priest, while her body is transferred from her grave to be laid next to her husband.

If the family was “suitably rich to tempt a girl,” the ghost marriage might also profit them with the asset of having a daughter-in-law. Since a daughter is not considered “a potential contributor to the lineage into which she is born,” but rather “it is expected that she will give the children she bears and her adult labor to the family of her husband”, the wife of a deceased son would benefit her husband’s family by becoming a caregiver in their home.

Once the deceased son had a wife, the family could adopt an heir, or a “grandson” to continue on the family line. The purpose of the daughter-in-law was not to produce offspring, as she was to live a chaste life, but she became the “social instrument” to enable the family to adopt. The family preferred to adopt patrilineally-related male kin, usually through a brother assigning one of his own sons to the lineage of the deceased. The adoption was carried out by writing up a contract, which was then placed under the dead man’s tablet. As an adopted son, his duties were to make ancestral offerings on his birth and death dates, and he was additionally “entitled to inherit his foster father’s share of the family estate."

Requests from the afterworld

Ghost marriages are often set up by request of the spirit of the deceased, who, upon “finding itself without a spouse in the other world,” causes misfortune for its natal family, the family of its betrothed, or for the family of the deceased’s married sisters. “This usually takes the form of sickness by one or more family members. When the sickness is not cured by ordinary means, the family turns to divination and learns of the plight of the ghost through a séance."

More benignly, a spirit may appear to a family member in a dream and request a spouse. Marjorie Topley, in “Ghost Marriages Among the Singapore Chinese: A Further Note,” relates the story of one fourteen-year old Cantonese boy who died. A month later he appeared to his mother in a dream saying that he wished to marry a girl who had recently died in Ipoh, Perak. The son did not reveal her name, but his mother used a Cantonese female spirit medium and “through her the boy gave the name of the girl together with her place of birth and age, and details of her horoscope which were subsequently found to be compatible with his."

Other instances of ghost marriage

Because Chinese custom dictates that younger brothers should not marry before their elder brothers, a ghost marriage for an older, deceased brother may be arranged just prior to a younger brother’s wedding to avoid “incurring the disfavour of his brother’s ghost."
Additionally, in the days of immigration, ghost marriages were used as a means to “cement a bond of friendship between two families." However, there have been no recent cases reported.

Arranging a Ghost Marriage

If a family wishes to arrange a ghost marriage, they may consult with a matchmaker of sorts: In a Cantonese area of Singapore “there is in fact a ghost marriage broker’s sign hung up in a doorway of a Taoist priest’s home. The broker announces that he is willing to undertake the search for a family which has a suitable deceased member with a favourable horoscope."

Others do not use the aid of any priest or diviner, but believe that the groom the ghost-bride has chosen “ somehow identify himself." Typically, the family lays a red envelope as bait in the middle of the road. They then take hiding, and when the envelope is picked up by a passer-by, they come out and announce his status of being the chosen bridegroom.

Dowries and bridewealth

The exchange of bridewealth and dowries between the two families involved in a ghost marriage is quite “variable,” and families may exchange both, one or the other, or even just red money packets. There is no standard amount exchanged, but several of Janice Stockard’s informants reported that the groom’s family provided the bride with a house. In another reported ghost-marriage, the groom’s family sent wedding cakes and NT $120 to the brides family, who returned it with a dowry of a gold ring, gold necklace, several pairs of shoes, and six dresses “all fitted for the use of the groom’s living wife."

Rites of the ghost marriage ceremony

In a ghost-marriage, many of the typical marriage rites are observed. However, since one or more parties is predeceased, they are otherwise represented, most often by effigies made of paper, bamboo, or cloth.

A ghost couple at their wedding feast. Featured in "Ghost Marriages Among the Singapore Chinese: A Further Note," Vol. 56 of Man . Pp 71-72.

In the picture above, depicting a ghost-couple at their marriage feast, the bride and groom are constructed of paper bodies over a bamboo frame with a papier m?ché head. On either side of them stands their respective paper servants, and the room contains many other paper effigies of products they would use in their home, such as a dressing table , a table and six stools, a money safe, a refrigerator, and trunks of paper clothes and cloth. After the marriage ceremony is complete, all of the paper belongings are burned to be sent to the spirit world to be used by the couple.

Two spirit brides at their wedding ceremony. Featured in David K. Jordan’s Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors: The Folk Religion of a Taiwanese Village, p. 145.

In another ceremony that married a living groom to a ghost bride, the effigy was similar, but instead constructed with a wooden backbone, arms made from newspaper, and the head of “a smiling young girl clipped from a wall calendar." Similarly, after the marriage festivities, the dummy is burned.
In both cases, the effigies wore real clothing, similar to that which is typically used in marriage ceremonies. This includes a pair of trousers, a white skirt, a red dress, with a lace outer dress. Additionally, they were adorned with jewelry; though similar in fashion to that of a typical bride’s, it was not made of real gold. If a living groom is marrying a ghost-bride, he will wear black gloves instead of the typical white.
Most of the marriage ceremony and rites are performed true to Chinese custom. In fact, “the bride was always treated as though she was alive and participating in the proceedings” from being fed at the wedding feast in the morning, to being invited in and out of the cab, to being told of her arrival at the groom’s house. One observable difference in a ghost marriage is that that the ancestral tablet of the deceased is placed inside the effigy, so that “the bride’s dummy animated with the ghost that to be married,” and then placed with the groom’s family’s tablets at the end of the marriage festivities.

Modern Ghost Marriage in the News

Brea, Jen. “ ‘Ghost bride’ returns to haunt Chinese trio.” The Scotsman. 26 January 2007.
http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=134732007

“Asia: Wet and dry goods; China’s corpse brides”. The Economist Newspaper. 26 July 2007.
http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9558423

Kramer, Michael. "A Day in The Life ...... Of China". Time Magazine. 2 October 1989.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958650-1,00.html

Other Links
“Ghost Marriages.” Singapore Paranormal Investigation. 23 May 2005. http://www.spi.com.sg/spi_files/ghost_marriage/main00.htm

Citations

Chinese clan

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A Chinese clan is a patrilineal and patrilocal group of related people with a common sharing a and, in many cases, an ancestral home .

Clan loyalties tend to be strong in southern China, reinforced by ties to an ancestral village, common property, and often a common spoken Chinese dialect unintelligible to people outside the village. Clan structures tend to be weaker in northern China, with clan members that do not usually reside in the same village nor share property.

In Imperial times, a consort clan was a clan with special status due to its connection with an Emperor. Throughout Chinese history consort clans have exercised great power at various times. There have been several usurptions of power by consort clans, the most notable being the Han Dynasty's Empress Dowager Lü , the Tang Dynasty's Empress Wu , and the Qing Dynasty's Empress Dowager Cixi . The Han Dynasty usurper Wang Mang was a relative of the Grand Empress Dowager Wang.

During the Qing dynasty, the Imperial government encouraged Chinese clans to take up some quasi-governmental functions such as those involved social welfare and primary education.

Chinese calendar correspondence table

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This table shows the stem/branch year names, correspondences to the Western calendar, and other related information for the current, 79th sexagenary cycle of the Chinese calendar .

Chinese calendar

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The Chinese calendar is , incorporating elements of a lunar calendar with those of a solar calendar. This measure of time is not exclusive to China, but followed by many other Asian cultures. It is often referred to by the Western cultures as the Chinese calendar because it was first used by the Chinese. In most of Asia today, the Gregorian calendar is used for day to day activities, but the Chinese calendar is still used for marking traditional East Asian holidays such as the Lunar New Year , and in China the Duan Wu festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival, and in astrology, such as choosing the most auspicious date for a wedding or the opening of a building. Because each month follows one cycle of the moon, it is also used to determine the phases of the moon.

In China, the traditional calendar is known as the "''agricultural calendar''" while the Gregorian calendar is known as the "''common calendar''" or "''Common calendar''" . Another name for the Chinese calendar is the " Calendar" in reference to the lunar aspect of the calendar, whereas the Gregorian calendar is the " Calendar" in reference to its solar properties. The Chinese calendar was also called the "old calendar" after the "new calendar" , i.e. the Gregorian calendar, was adopted as the official calendar. The traditional calendar is also often referred to as "the Calendar", following a comment in the Shiji which states that under the Xia Dynasty, the year began on the second moon after the winter solstice .

The current year in the Chinese calendar is 4706 the ''Year of the Earth Rat'' . It lasts from 7 February 2008 to 25 January 2009. Based on traditional beliefs, some form of the calendar has been in use for almost five millennia. Based on archaeological evidence some form of it has been in use for three and a half millennia.

History

Early history

The earliest evidence of the Chinese calendar is found on oracle bones of the Shang dynasty , which seem to describe a lunisolar year of twelve months, with a possible intercalary thirteenth, or even fourteenth, added empirically to prevent calendar ''drift''. The Sexagenary cycle for recording days was already in use. Tradition holds that, in that era, the year began on the first new moon after the winter solstice.

Early Eastern Zhou texts, such as the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', provide better understanding of the calendars used in the Zhou dynasty. One year usually had 12 months, which were alternatively 29 and 30 days long , and intercalary months were added in an arbitrary fashion, at the end of the year.

These arbitrary rules on day and month intercalation caused the calendars of each state to be slightly different, at times. Thus, texts like the Annals will often state whether the calendar they use is in phase with the ''Royal calendar'' .

Although tradition holds that in the Zhou, the year began on the new moon which preceded the winter solstice, the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' seem to indicate that the Yin calendar was in use until the middle of the 7th century, and that the beginning of the year was shifted back one month around 650 BC.

By the beginning of the Warring States, progress in astronomy and mathematics allowed the creation of calculated calendars . The ''sìfēn'' 四分 calendar, which began about 484 BC, was the first calculated Chinese calendar, so named because it used a solar year of 365? days , along with a 19-year Rule Cycle, known in the West as the Metonic cycle. The year began on the new moon preceding the winter solstice, and intercalary months were inserted at the end of the year.

In 256 BC, as the last Zhou king ceded his territory to Qin, a new calendar began to be used. It followed the same principles as the Sifen calendar, except the year began one month before . The Qin calendar was used during the Qin dynasty, and in the beginning of the Western Han dynasty.

Taichu calendar

The of the Western Han dynasty introduced reforms that have governed the Chinese calendar ever since. His 太初 calendar of 104 BC had a year with the winter solstice in the eleventh month and designated as intercalary any calendar month during which the sun does not pass a principal term . Because the sun's mean motion was used to calculate the until 1645, this intercalary month was equally likely to occur after any month of the year. The conjunction of the sun and moon was calculated using the mean motions of both the sun and moon until 619, the second year of the Tang dynasty, when chronologists began to use true motions modeled using two offset opposing parabolas . Unfortunately, the parabolas did not meet smoothly at the mean motion, but met with a discontinuity or jump.

The Taichu Calendar of 104 BC set the tropical year at 365

\tfrac

days and the lunar month at 29

\tfrac

days.. Using the old Beijing timezone, the New Moon occurred at 23:53 on the 2nd, so the eighth month began on a different day in the calendars. Thus people in Hong Kong celebrated the Festival on 16 September, but those in the mainland celebrated on 17 September.

Calendar rules

The following rules outline the Chinese calendar since c.104 BC. Note that the rules allow either mean or true motions of the Sun and Moon to be used, depending on the historical period.

# The months are lunar months. This means the first day of each month beginning at ''midnight'' is the day of the astronomical new moon.
# Each year has 12 regular months, which are numbered in sequence and have alternative names. Every second or third year has an intercalary month , which may come after any regular month. It has the same number as the preceding regular month, but is designated intercalary.
# Every other of the Chinese solar year is equivalent to an entry of the sun into a sign of the tropical zodiac .
# The sun always passes the during month 11.
# If there are 12 months between two successive occurrences of month 11, at least one of these 12 months must be a month during which the sun remains within the same zodiac sign throughout . If only one such month occurs, it is designated intercalary, but if two such months occur, only the first is designated intercalary.
# The times of the astronomical new moons and the sun entering a zodiac sign are determined in the Chinese Time Zone by the Purple Mountain Observatory outside Nanjing using modern astronomical equations. Chinese Americans use Nanjing Calendar instead of defining a local one. To them, the new Moon can occur on the last day of the previous month according to their local USA time. For example, A new Moon occurred on May 16 2007 by USA time, but Chinese Americans still regard May 17 2007 as the first day of a new month. Further, they define the boundaries of the day according to a USA local time zone. Thus rule number 1 is not followed in this case,.
The zodiac sign which the sun enters during the month and the ecliptic longitude of that entry point usually determine the number of a regular month. Month 1, zhēngyuè, literally means principal month. All other months are literally numbered, second month, third month, etc.

Some believe the above correspondence to be always true, but there are exceptions, which, for example, prevent Chinese New Year from always being the second new moon after the winter solstice, or that cause the holiday to occur after the ''Rain Water'' jieqi. An exception will occur in 2033-2034, when the winter solstice is the second solar term in the eleventh month. The next month is a no-entry month and so is intercalary, and a twelfth month follows which contains both the Aquarius and Pisces solar terms . The Year of the Tiger thus begins on the third new moon following the Winter Solstice, and also occurs after the Pisces jieqi, on February 19.

Another occurrence was in 1984-85, after the sun had entered both Capricorn at 270° and Aquarius at 300° in month 11, and then entered Pisces at 330° during the next month, which should have caused it to be month 1. The sun did not enter any sign during the next month. In order to keep the winter solstice in month 11, the month which should have been month 1 became month 12, and the month thereafter became month 1, causing Chinese New Year to occur on 20 February 1985 after the sun had already passed into Pisces at 330° during the previous month, rather than during the month beginning on that day.

On those occasions when a dual-entry month does occur, it always occurs somewhere between two months that do not have any entry . It usually occurs alone and either includes the winter solstice or is nearby, thus placing the winter solstice in month 11 chooses which of the two non-entry months becomes the intercalary month. In 1984-85, the month immediately before the dual-entry month 11 was a non-entry month which was designated as an intercalary month 10. All months from the dual-entry month to the non-entry month that is not to be intercalary are sequentially numbered with the nearby regular months . The last phrase of rule 5, choosing the first of two non-entry months between months 11, has not been required since the last calendar reform, and will not be necessary until the 2033-34 occasion, when two dual-entry months will be interspersed among three non-entry months, two of which will be on one side of month 11. The leap eleventh month produced is a very rare occasion.

Exceptions such as these are rare. Fully 96.6% of all months contain only one entry into a zodiacal sign , all obeying the numbering rules of the table, and 3.0% of all months are intercalary months . Only 0.4% of all months either are dual-entry months or are neighboring months that are renumbered.

It is only after the 1645 reform that this situation arose. Then it became necessary to fix one month to always contain its principal term and allow any other to occasionally not contain its principal term. Month 11 was chosen, because its principal term forms the start of the Chinese Solar year .

The Chinese lunar calendar and the Gregorian Calendar often sync up every 19 years . Most Chinese people notice that their Chinese and Western birthdays often fall on the same day on their 19th, 38th birthday etc. However, a 19-year cycle with a certain set of intercalary months is only an approximation, so an almost identical pattern of intercalary months in subsequent cycles will eventually change after some multiple of 19 years to a quite different 19-year cycle.

The Chinese zodiac is only used in naming years—it is not used in the actual calculation of the calendar. In fact, the Chinese have a very different .

The twelve months are closely connected with agriculture, so they are alternatively named after plants:

# Primens 正月: Latin "primus mensis".
# Apricomens 杏月: apricot blossoms.
# Peacimens 桃月: peach blossoms.
# Plumens 梅月: '''' ripens.
# Guavamens 榴月: pomegranate blossoms.
# Lotumens 荷月: blossoms.
# Orchimens 蘭月: orchid blossoms.
# Osmanthumens 桂月: osmanthus blossoms.
# Chrysanthemens 菊月: chrysanthemum blossoms.
# Benimens 良月: good month.
# Hiemens 冬月: month.
# Lamens 臘月: last month.

Year markings

Regnal years

Traditional Chinese years were not continuously numbered in the way that the BC/AD system is. More commonly, official year counting always used some form of a regnal year. This system began in 841 BC during the Zhou dynasty. Prior to this, years were not marked at all, and historical events cannot be dated exactly.

In 841 BC, the was ousted by a civilian uprising , and the country was governed for the next fourteen years by a council of senior ministers, a period known as the . In this period, years were marked as First Year of the Regency.

Subsequently, years were marked as regnal years, ''e.g.'', the year 825 BC was marked as the 3rd Year of the . This system was used until early in the Han dynasty, when the instituted . After this, most emperors used one or more regnal names to mark their reign. Usually, the emperor would institute a new name upon accession to the throne, and then change to new names to mark significant events, or to end a perceived cycle of bad luck. In the Ming dynasty, however, each emperor usually used only one regnal name for his reign. In Qing dynasty, each emperor used only one regnal name for his reign.

This system continued until the Republic of China, which counted years as Years of the Republic, beginning in 1912. Thus, 1912 is the 1st Year of the Republic, and 1949 the 38th. This system is still used for official purposes in Taiwan. For the rest of China, in 1949 the People's Republic of China chose to use the Common Era system , in line with international standards.

The stem-branch cycle

The other system by which years are marked historically in China was by the stem-branch or sexagenary cycle. This system is based on two forms of counting: a cycle of 10 Heavenly Stems and a cycle of 12 Earthly Branches. Each year is named by a pair of one stem and one branch called a Stem-Branch . The Heavenly Stems are associated with Yin Yang and the . Recent 10-year periods began in 1984, 1994, and 2004. The Earthly Branches are associated with the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Each Earthly Branch is also associated with an animal, collectively known as the . Recent 12-year periods began in 1984 and 1996.

Since the numbers 10 and 12 have a common factor of 2, only 1/2 of the 120 possible stem-branch combinations actually occur. The resulting 60-year cycle takes the name ''jiǎzǐ'' after the first year in the cycle, being the Heavenly Stem of "jiǎ" and Earthly Branch of "zǐ". The term "jiǎzǐ" is used figuratively to mean "a full lifespan"—one who has lived more than a jiǎzǐ is obviously blessed.

At first, this system was used to mark days, not years. The earliest evidence of this were found on oracle bones dated c.1350 BC in Shang Dynasty. This system of date marking continues to this day, and can still be found on Chinese calendars today. Although a stem-branch cannot be used to deduce the actual day in historical events, it can assist in converting Chinese dates to other calendars more accurately.

Around the Han Dynasty, the stem-branch cycle also began to be used to mark years. The 60-year system cycles continuously, and determines the animal or sign under which a person is born . These cycles were not named, and were used in conjunction with declared by the . For example: 康熙壬寅 is the first 壬寅 year during the reign of 康熙 , regnal name of an emperor of the Qing Dynasty

The months and hours can also be denoted using Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, though they are commonly addressed using Chinese numerals instead. In Chinese astrology, four Stem-Branch pairs form the Eight Characters .

Continuously-numbered years

There is no universally agreed upon "" or starting point for the Chinese calendar. Tradition holds that the calendar was invented by Huang Di in the 61st year of his reign in what is now known under the proleptic Gregorian calendar as 2637 BC. Many have used this date as the epoch, ''i.e.'' the first year of the first sixty-year cycle, of the Chinese calendar, but others have used the date of the beginning of his reign in 2697 BC as the epoch. Since these dates are exactly sixty years apart, it does not matter which is used to determine the stem/branch sequence or the astrological sign for any succeeding year. That is, 2006 is a bingxu year and the Year of the Dog regardless of whether years are counted from 2637 BC or 2697 BC.

For the most part, the imposition of a continuous numbering system on the Chinese calendar was of interest mostly to Jesuit missionaries and other Westerners who assumed that calendars obviously had to be continuous. However, in the early 20th century, some Chinese s began to advocate widespread use of continuously numbered years, so that year markings would be independent of the Emperor's . When Sun Yat-sen became the provisional president of the Republic of China, he sent telegrams to leaders of all provinces and announced the 13th day of 11th Month of the 4609th year of the Yellow Emperor's reign to be the 1st year of the Republic of China. His choice was adopted by many overseas Chinese communities outside Southeast Asia such as .

Correspondence between systems

The following link provides conversion of Chinese calendar dates to Western calendar dates: http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/sinocal/luso.html
This table shows the stem/branch year names, correspondences to the Western calendar, and other related information for the current decade.
Or see of the full 60-year cycle.

Notes

¹ The beginning of each zodiac year should correspond to the first day of the lunar year.

² As discussed above, there is considerable difficulty in establishing a basis for the chronology of the continuous year numbers. The numbers listed here are too high by 60 if an epoch of 2637 BCE is accepted. They may be too low by 1 if an epoch of 2698 BCE is accepted. That is, according to some sources, Gregorian 2006 could alternatively correspond to 4643, or perhaps 4704.

³ In any case, the correspondence between a lunisolar Chinese year and a solar Gregorian year is of course not exact. The first few months of each Gregorian year—those preceding Chinese New Year—belong to the previous Chinese year. For example, January 1 – January 28 of 2006 correspond to yǐyǒu or 4702. Thus, it might be more precise to state that Gregorian 2006 corresponds to 4702–4703, or that continuous Chinese 4703 corresponds to 2006–2007.

Solar year versus lunar year

There is a distinction between a solar year and a lunar year in the Chinese calendar because the calendar is lunisolar. A lunar year is from one Chinese new year to the next. A solar year is either the period between one Spring Equinox and the next or the period between two s . A lunar year is exclusively used for dates, whereas a solar year, especially that between winter solstices, is used to number the months.

Hours of the day

Under the traditional system of hour-marking, each day is divided into 12 units . Each of these units is equivalent to two hours of international time. Each is named after one of the twelve Earthly Branches. The first unit, Hour of Zi , begins at 11 p.m. of the previous day and ends at 1 a.m. Traditionally, executions of condemned prisoners occur at the midpoint of Hour of Wu , ''i.e.'', noon.

A second system subdivided the day into 100 equal parts, , each of which equalling 14.4 minutes or a familiar rough quarter of a standard Western hour. This was valid for centuries, making the Chinese first to apply decimal time - long before the French revolution. However, because 100 could not be divided equally into the 12 "hours", the system was changed to variously 96, 108, and 120 ''ke'' in a day. During the Qing Dynasty, the number was officially settled at 96, making each ''ke'' exactly a quarter of a Western hour. Today, ''ke'' is often used to refer to a quarter of an hour.

Twelve animals

The Twelve animals representing the twelve Earthly Branches are, in order, the , , , , , , , , , , , and .

A legend explains the sequence in which the animals were assigned. Supposedly, the twelve animals fought over the precedence of the animals in the cycle of years in the calendar, so the Chinese gods held a contest to determine the order. All the animals lined up on the bank of a river and were given the task of getting to the opposite shore. Their order in the calendar would be set by the order in which the animals managed to reach the other side. The cat wondered how he would get across if he was afraid of water. At the same time, the ox wondered how he would cross with his poor eyesight. The calculating rat suggested that he and the cat jump onto the ox's back and guide him across. The ox was steady and hard-working so that he did not notice a commotion on his back. In the meanwhile, the rat sneaked up behind the unsuspecting cat and shoved him into the water. Just as the ox came ashore, the rat jumped off and finished the race first. The lazy pig came to the far shore in twelfth place. And so the rat got the first year named after him, the ox got the second year, and the pig ended up as the last year in the cycle. The cat finished too late to win any place in the calendar, and vowed to be the enemy of the rat forevermore.

Solar term

Chinese months follow the phases of the moon. As a result, they do not accurately follow the seasons of the solar year. To assist farmers to decide when to plant or harvest crops, the drafters of the calendar put in 24 seasonal markers, which follow the solar year, and are called '''' 節氣.

The term ''Jiéqì'' is usually translated as "Solar Terms" . Each node is the instant when the sun reaches one of twenty-four equally spaced points along the ecliptic, including the solstices and equinoxes, positioned at fifteen intervals. Because the calculation is solar-based, these ''jiéqì'' fall around the same date every year in solar calendars , but do not form any obvious pattern in the Chinese calendar. The dates below are approximate and may vary slightly from year to year due to the intercalary rules of the Gregorian calendar. ''Jiéqì'' are published each year in farmers' almanacs. Chinese New Year is usually the new moon closest to ''lìchūn''.

In the table below, these measures are given in the standard astronomical convention of ecliptic longitude, zero degrees being positioned at the vernal equinox point. Each calendar month under the heading "M" contains the designated ''jiéqì'' called a principal term, which is an entry into a sign of the zodiac, also known as a cusp. Here ''term'' has the archaic meaning of a limit, not a duration. In Chinese astronomy, seasons are centered on the solstices and equinoxes, whereas in the standard Western definition, they begin at the solstices and equinoxes. Thus the term ''Beginning of Spring'' and the related Spring Festival fall in February, when it is still very chilly in temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.

Note: The third jiéqì was originally called 啓蟄 but renamed to 驚蟄 in the era of the Emperor Jing of Han to avoid writing his given name 啓 .

Holidays

The Chinese calendar year has nine main festivals, seven determined by the lunisolar calendar, and two derived from the solar agricultural calendar. The two special holidays are the Qingming Festival and the , falling upon the respective solar terms, at ecliptic longitudes of 15° and 270°, respectively. As for all other calendrical calculations, the calculations use civil time in China, UTC+8.

Purpose of the intercalary months

Most people, upon using or studying the Chinese calendar, are perplexed by the intercalary month because of its seemingly unpredictable nature. As mentioned above, the intercalary month refers to additional months added to the calendar in some years to correct for its deviation from the astronomical year, a function similar to that of the extra day in February in leap years.

However, because of the complex astronomical knowledge required to calculate if and when an intercalary month needs to be inserted, to most people, it is simply a mystery. This has led to a superstition that intercalary months in certain times of the year bring bad luck.

The main purpose of the intercalary month is to correct for deviations of the calendrical year from the astronomical year. Because the Chinese calendar is mainly a lunar calendar, its standard year is 354 days, whereas the astronomical year is approximately 365? days. Without the intercalary month, this deviation would build up over time, and the Spring festival, for example, would no longer fall in Spring. Thus, the intercalary month serves a valuable purpose in ensuring that the year in the Chinese calendar remains approximately in line with the astronomical year.

The intercalary month is inserted whenever the Chinese calendar moves too far from the stage of progression of the earth in its orbit. Thus, for example, if the beginning of a certain month in the Chinese calendar deviates by a certain number of days from its equivalent in a solar calendar, an intercalary month needs to be inserted.

The practical benefit of this system is that the calendar is able to approximately keep in pace with the solar cycle, while at the same time retaining months that roughly correspond with lunar cycles. Hence the term ''lunisolar'' calendar. The latter is important because many traditional festivals correspond to significant events in the moon's cycle. For example, the mid-autumn festival is always on a day of the full moon.

The relevance of the calendar today

There have been calls for reform in recent years from experts in China, because of the increasing irrelevance of the Chinese calendar in modern life. They point to the example in Japan, where during the Meiji Restoration the nation adopted the Western calendar, and simply shifted all traditional festivities onto an equivalent date. However, the Chinese calendar remains important as an element of cultural tradition, and for certain cultural activities.

Practical uses

The original practical relevance of the lunisolar calendar for date marking has largely disappeared. First, the Gregorian calendar is much easier to compute and more in line with both international standards and the astronomical year. Its adoption for official purposes has meant that the traditional calendar is rarely used for date marking. This, in turn, means that it is more convenient to remember significant events such as birth dates by the Gregorian rather than the Chinese calendar.

Second, the 24 solar terms were important to farmers who would not be able to plan agricultural activities without foreknowledge of these terms. However, the 24 solar terms are more predictable on the Gregorian calendar than the lunisolar calendar since they are based on the solar cycle. It is easier for the average Chinese farmer to organize their planting and harvesting with the Gregorian calendar.

Cultural issues

However, the Chinese calendar remains culturally essential. For example, most of the traditional festivals, such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival, traditionally occur at new moon or full moon. Furthermore, the traditional Chinese calendar, as an element of traditional culture, is invested with much cultural and nationalistic sentiment.

The calendar is still used in the more traditional Chinese households around the world to pick 'lucky dates' for important events such as weddings, funerals, and business deals. A special calendar is used for this purpose, called Huang Li, literally "Imperial Calendar", which contains auspicious activities, times, and directions for each day. The calendar follows the Gregorian dates but has the corresponding Chinese dates. Every date would have a comprehensive listing of astrological measurements and fortune elements.

Thus, while the traditional calendar could be removed without much practical effect, its sentimental and cultural significance will probably see its retention for some time yet.

Influence

Other traditional East Asian calendars are very similar to if not identical to the Chinese calendar: the Korean calendar is identical; the substitutes the cat for the rabbit in the ; the Tibetan calendar differs slightly in animal names, and the traditional Japanese calendar uses a different method of calculation, resulting in disagreements between the calendars in some years.

The twelve year cycle, with the animal names translated into the vernacular, was adopted by the G?ktürks , and spread subsequently among many if not most Turkic peoples, as well as the Mongols. calendar seems to have been used by the Bulgars, as attested in the Nominalia of the Bulgarian Khans and in some other documents. The main differences between the Bulgar and the Chinese calendar are the different calculating system, the tiger has been replaced with a wolf, and the dragon and monkey - with an unknown animal. Also, the Bulgar calendar is a solar one.

Chinese-Uighur calendar

In 1258, when both China and the Islamic world were part of the Mongol Empire, Hulagu Khan established an observatory in Maragheh for the astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi at which a few Chinese astronomers were present, resulting in the Chinese-Uighur calendar that al-Tusi describes in his ''Zij-i Ilkhani''. The twelve year cycle, including Turkish/Mongolian translations of the animal names remained in use for chronology, historiography, and bureaucratic purposes in the Persian and Turkish speaking world from Asia Minor to India throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods. In Iran it remained common in agricultural records and tax assessments until .

Chinese State Circus

2008-10-07T04:04:00.005-07:00

The Chinese State Circus is a touring circus which aims to present the circus arts to European audiences. The show is based on Chinese acrobatic acts. All the performers come from China and are trained in the Chinese Tradition of ''horse theatre'' or ''Ma Xi''.

It combines Kung-Fu martial arts from the Shaolin Temple, artists from the Peking Opera and other Chinese speciality acts brought together to produce a single show. is provided by the figure of the who appears between acts. The show also includes a Dragon dance, Lion dance. and an excerpt from Chinese opera.

The circus has toured in the UK since 1992. It is currently touring North East Scotland. The Chinese State Circus was part of the Brighton Festival Fringe during May.

The BBC produced a critical report revealing that the members of the circus are poorly paid and have been mistreated when injured.

Chinatowns in Latin America

2008-10-07T04:04:00.003-07:00

Chinatowns in Latin America developed with the rise of in the 19th century to various countries in Latin America as contract laborers in agricultural and fishing industries. Most came from Guangdong Province. Since the 1970s, the new arrivals have typically hailed from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Latin American Chinatowns may include the descendants of original migrants — often of mixed Chinese and Latino parentage — and more recent immigrants from East Asia. Most Asian Latin Americans are of and Hakka origin.
Estimates widely vary on the number of Chinese Descendants in Latin America but it is at least
1.4 million and likely much greater than this.

Unlike the Chinatowns of Anglo America and Europe, pure-blood ethnic Chinese were relatively few in number but now increasing rapidly due to generally lower levels of Chinese immigration to some parts of Latin America. Residents of Latin American Chinatowns tend to be multilingual. Latin America's Chinatowns include those of Mexico City, Havana, Buenos Aires, and . Some of these Chinatowns mainly serve as tourist attractions and not as true, living ethnic communities. The Chinatown of Havana, Cuba's is largely multi-generation Spanish-speaking Chinese Cuban whereas the Chinatown of the Belgrano district of Buenos Aires, Argentina consists of many first-generation Holo- and Mandarin-speaking immigrants from Taiwan.

Politically, several nations of Latin America recognize the government of the Republic of China in Taiwan. A Chinese arch was presented as a gift to the Barrio Chino of Panama City, following the visit of Panama by the then Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui. After the major official visit by the Cuban Revolution's Fidel Castro to the People's Republic of China in 1995, materials were given for the new Chinese arch on Calle Dragone in Havana's Barrio Chino.

Argentina

It is centered around Arribe?os, Mendoza and Monta?eses Streets, in the upper-middle class neighbourhood of Belgrano, Buenos Aires. Large numbers of recent Taiwanese and immigrants have settled in the area. Also included are ethnic Chinese from other parts of Latin America and East Asia, and Asians of non-Chinese ancestry, mainly Japanese and Korean, whose first immigrants date from WWII and the Korean war.

Brazil

, Brazil, has no permanent Chinatown, but the Chinese-Brazilian community is centered around the ''Liberdade'' district. Besides being an area famous for its strong presence, a significant number of Taiwanese immigrants settled in Liberdade, and many immigrants have come to Liberdade following the Communist revolution in 1949. Many Cantonese from Hong Kong and -speaking Macau — including some of mixed Chinese and descent — also settled the place after their in 1997 and 1999 respectively. These Macau immigrants can usually speak and understand , allowing them to adjust more easily to life in Brazil. A very sizeable number of have settled the area as refugees when they were violently forced out in the 1960s. Today, Chinese Brazilians are the second largest Asian ethnic group in Brazil, after the . The Liberdade district has a distinct multi-Asian cultural presence. In addition, the Chinese community of S?o Paulo have centered around "25 de Mar?o," an extensive retail and wholesale shopping area in the old center of SP.

Chile

The majority of 5,000 Chinese Chileans live in a district locally known as ''El Districto de la Chinesca'' or Chinatown in Santiago, where Chinese-owned businesses and stores selling authentic Chinese goods are, but it's not a classic example of what a "Chinatown" is without the pagodas or other features associated with Chinatowns around the world.

Costa Rica

There is a sizeable Chinese community in the Puntarenas area and , around the "Paseo de los estudiantes" area. Recent Chinese immigrants are coming from Taiwan, many of whom have established businesses in Costa Rica.

Cuba

Chinese immigration to Cuba started in 1847 when Spanish settlers brought in Cantonese contract workers to work in the sugar fields. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers were brought in from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan during the following decades to replace the labor of African slaves. After completing 8-year contracts, the Chinese immigrants generally settled permanently in Cuba, where their descendants have since intermarried with local Cubans.

Unlike that of Argentina and other Latin American countries, the overseas Chinese population of Cuba was once large, but the now-diminished Chinese Cuban community is today clustered around the largely dying ''Barrio Chino'' — called ''Barrio Chino de La Habana'' — on Calle Zanja, in Havana. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, many Chinese Cuban entrepreneurs fled the country for the United States. Since the 1960s, Cuba has not attracted very many, if any, Chinese immigrants .

Only one Chinese-language newspaper, ''Kwong Wah Po'', remains in Cuba. Havana's Chinatown was formerly among the largest in Latin America as the neighborhood comprised 44 square blocks during its prime. To tie in with the Revolution's economic reliance on tourism, attempts have recently been launched to attract revitalization investment for the Chinatown from Mainland Chinese state-run enterprises and overseas Chinese private investors, particularly Chinese Canadians.

Dominican Republic

While Havana's ''Barrio Chino'' is struggling for self-preservation, a new bustling and organic Chinatown in the Dominican Republic thrives, in that country's capital city Santo Domingo, on Avenida Duarte; it was officially inaugurated as a Chinatown in 2006. While serving the local Chinese community with at least 40 immigrant-run businesses, it is also promoted as a tourist attraction. The development of Chinatown is now gaining momentum, and a new gateway arch is in development. First-generation Chinese immigrants came from Hong Kong and Taiwan in 1970s.

Mexico

History

The first to Mexico came from China, some were -born Chinese, brought by the trade. However most contemporary Chinese immigrants came to Mexico during the 20th century as contract workers and political refugees. With the rise of anti-Chinese sentiment in Mexico in the 1930s under President Plutarco Elías Calles, most Chinese Mexicans, including individuals of mixed Chinese and Mexican descent, were forced out of Mexico and deported to China.

Mexico City's small ''barrio chino'' is on Calle Dolores in in the city center.

Mexicali, a historic Chinese outpost

The border town of Mexicali, Baja California, adjacent to the United States, contains the largest concentration of Chinese Mexicans in Mexico; its Chinatown, on Avenida Madero Calle Azueta, is called ''La Chinesca'' . Some of the earliest Chinese settlers who arrived in the United States eventually went south to Mexico to escape institutionalized anti-Chinese persecution in California. The largest number of new Cantonese-speaking Chinese immigrants came mostly from the Guangzhou area around 1919. Mexicali had a local chapter of the Kuomintang. There is now a consulate of the People's Republic of China in Mexicali. The economic problems of Mexico in the 1980s led many Chinese-Mexicans to migrate north into the United States. Today, members of the multigenerational Chinese-Mexican community own and operate many businesses across the city. One of the oldest Chinese restaurants, Restaurant 19, or named after one of the early Mexican chinatown corridors Alley 19 was opened in December 18, 1928 and eventually closed in Winter 2001. It was known to be one of the oldest Chinese restaurants in Mexico. This restaurant was utilized by many U.S. and Mexican officials and celebrities throughout the years; its end eventually came due to the devaluation of the in the 1980s and the new border crossing that takes tourist and locals away from the original heart of Mexicali. Currently there are more than 80 Chinese restaurants from small coffee shops '''' to huge 750 occupancy dining rooms. Nowadays, there are about 2,000 Chinese Mexicans living in the city, however there are 100,000 residents more than thought who are of Chinese descent .

Nicaragua

Nicaragua has no permanent Chinatown but the Chinese Nicaraguan community is centered around Managua and the Caribbean coast, most notably in Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas. Many Chinese immigrants are present, most of who are from mainland and also from Taiwan. The Chinese first arrived in Nicaragua's Caribbean coast, where most settled in cities such as Bluefields, El Bluff, Laguna de Perlas, and Puerto Cabezas. Then in the late 19th century began migrating to the Pacific lowlands of the country, mainly Managua. Many Chinese in Nicaragua committed themselves to the commerce industry and opened up businesses. They also dedicated themselves to the candy, soap, and clothing industries.

Panama

There are two commonly known Chinatowns in Panama City. The Traditional or Old Chinatown, located adjacent to "Casco Viejo" which represents the so called "Barrio Chino de la Ciudad de Panamá". And the emerging Chinatown in . These Chinatowns grew mostly out of the need for commerce within the immigrants. Items and Foodstuffs that were not normally commerced in Panama, but were wanted by the immigrants, was/is traded in Chinatown.

;History and immigration
During the 1940s - 1950s Arnulfo Arias's government, the Chinese population in Panama suffered persecution and deportation . For which many Chinese decided to change surnames through fake marriages to Panamanian nationals. Under Omar Torrijos's and Manuel Noriega's Regime, many nationals profited by offering illegal travel documents for sale, which brought Mainland Chinese immigrants into the country.

In the 1850s, the original Chinese immigrants came to build the railroads of Panama. This is the first massive Chinese migration to Panama.
The second migration took place during the Panama Canal construction. There have been many migrations since, triggered by different situations and from different regions in China and Asia.
Panama, because of its commercial/trade location advantage, has been favored by many a migrating Chinese and Asian. Nowadays, Panama hosts many Chinese of a "regional mandarin" and -speaking descent. Immigrants from Hong Kong and Guangdong province of China make up the majority of Chinese and Asians living in Panama. Other ethnicities and nationalities in Panama with sizable populations include: Taiwanese, Japanese, and South Koreans.

Peru

The main Peruvian Chinatown is located in Lima and is called the ''Barrio Chino de Lima'', located on Calle Capón ; it is one of the two earliest Chinatowns in the Western Hemisphere, along with that of Havana, and contains various architecture in traditional Chinese fashion. Local Chinese restaurants, called in Peruvian Spanish chifas, serve Chinese food with significant Peruvian influence and are popular in Chinatown among native Peruvians as well.

In contrast to Cuba, the Chinese Peruvians, despite the problems of recent history in the country — including the dictatorial rule of Juan Velasco Alvarado , which forced many of his Chinese Peruvian opponents to flee — have still chosen to remain in large numbers.

Historical Chinese immigration to the Amazonian region of Peru is intriguingly documented in a small village named Chino several miles outside of . While its inhabitants, in the main, are clearly native Amazonians, many bear striking genetic traits — markedly smoother facial structure, stereotypically Asian eyes, and straighter hair — which may mark the existence of a community of Chinese immigrants in the 19th or 20th century who intermarried and vanished, as mysteriously as they came.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico boasts a ''barrio chino'' in . Since Puerto Ricans are U.S. , Chinese-Puerto Ricans can also be considered Chinese Americans. However, many Chinese Puerto Ricans, to escape poverty, have moved to the mainland United States.

Venezuela

Venezuela is also home to one of Latin America's largest concentrations of ethnic Chinese. A lively ''barrio chino'' can be found on Avenida Principal El Bosque in the El Bosque district of Caracas. Cantonese is widely spoken among Chinese Venezuelans, especially the variety commonly known as Hoisan or Toisan, but there has been recent Taiwanese immigration, adding to the linguistic and cultural diversity. Chinese from other places of the world also settled in Venezuela, especially from the Philippines, where they were experienced persecution in the 1970s under Ferdinand Marcos, and Cuba, where Fidel Castro's Communist Revolution seized their businesses.

China Perspectives

2008-10-07T04:04:00.001-07:00

The journal

''China Perspectives'' is an academic quarterly launched in 1994 by the French Centre for Research on Contemporary China and published in Hong Kong. It is the English version of the French-language scientific journal created in 1992 by Michel Bonnin and by Rapha?l Jacquet: ''Perspectives chinoises. China Perspectives'' aims at analyzing the developments in the contemporary Chinese world and uses an interdisciplinary approach.

Chief editors

1992-1999: Rapha?l Jacquet

1999-2003: Eric Sautedé

2003-2006: Patricia Batto

2006- ? : Sébastien Billioud

China Perspectives online

Articles are available online:

- on the website of the CEFC:

- on revues.org:

China Famous Tea

2008-10-07T04:03:00.010-07:00

China's Famous Teas or The Ten Great Chinese Teas refers to a finite list of types of Chinese tea. Though different sources will cite slightly different teas, this is a list from ''Chinese Tea Culture Research Centre'' of the 10 famous teas.

*''Yunnan '', one of China's oldest teas known for its unique ageing properties and health benefits.
*''Xi Hu '', a Green tea from .
*''Dong Ting '', a Green tea from .
*''Huang Shan Mao Feng tea'', a Green tea from .
*''Tai Ping Hou Kui tea'', a Green tea from .
*''Lu An '', a Green tea from .
*''Xin Yang '', a Green tea from .
*'''', a Black tea from .
*'''', a Yellow tea from .
*'''', an Oolong tea from Mount Wuyi, .
*''Tieguanyin'', an Oolong tea from .

China Digital Times

2008-10-07T04:03:00.009-07:00

China Digital Times is a news portal covering China's political and social transformation. It provides daily news digest about China, as well as rich links for its context. The website mines the wealth of information available online in both English and Chinese and provides cultural, social and political through the innovative use of Web 2.0 technologies, such as , Wiki, RSS, social bookmarking, , and photo and video sharing. The editors augment this information with original content including reporting, translation, interviews, analysis, and commentary from a community of experts and participants and encourage dialogue and debate on relevant issues. Its content also contains podcasts, book club and slideshow and become a public forum that provides an uncensored look at China and its transition.

Launched in November 2003 by Xiao Qiang, China Digital Times is run by the China Internet Project out of the Graduate School of Journalism, University of California, Berkeley.

According to , visitors of China Digital Times site are coming from more than one hundred countries. The China Digital Times website is currently blocked and not freely accessible from mainland China.

Chan Chu

2008-10-07T04:03:00.007-07:00

Chan Chu means "toad" or "frog", especially the "Lucky Money Toad" or "Three-legged Money Frog", a popular symbol for prosperity. It is often portrayed with red eyes and flared nostrils, sitting on a pile of traditional Chinese cash, with a coin in its mouth. According to Feng Shui lore, it is believed to drive away evil, protect wealth, and increase income.

Method of use

In Feng Shui, the ''Chan Chu'' "Money Frog" is alleged to bring wealth into your life. Place one frog within view of your front door to invite money in; or place eight facing the different directions in your living area and one facing your front door. The frog is then turned backwards during nighttime, to prevent this newly earned luck from going away.

Canadian International Dragon Boat Festival

2008-10-07T04:03:00.005-07:00

The Canadian International Dragon Boat Festival or Rio Tinto Alcan Dragon Boat Festival takes place every June at False Creek in Vancouver. It is the largest and oldest Dragon Boat Festival outside of Asia. It was founded in 1986 by and Milton Wong at the 1986 Vancouver World's Fair . It was first produced as a demonstration sport, being the first dragon boat race/festival outside of Asia. It has grown in leaps and bounds and is not only recognized as North America's biggest and best, but also as the festival which kick started many other dragon boat festivals in the western world.

The Festival was created as a showcase of Vancouver's growing cultural diversity and to promote racial harmony and cross cultural understanding to all Canadians - both new and old. Vancouverites were invited down to the festival to experience spectacular food, entertainment, arts and children's programming reflecting Vancouver's cultural diversity. Today, it is still fulfilling its mandate to promote cultural harmony amongst Canadians, the Festival has developed into one of Vancouver's most anticipated annual family summer events. Vancouver's Alcan Dragon Boat Festival is a true celebration of multiculturalism, attracting over 100,000 people and more than 180 dragon boat teams from across the Lower Mainland and around the globe.

Venue

* False Creek

Boats

The festival uses Gemini and BuK dragon boats. Older six-sixteen boats have been retired.

Big Swords Society

2008-10-07T04:03:00.003-07:00

The Big Swords Society was a traditional peasant self-defence group, widespread in North China during the Qing Dynasty and noted for their reckless courage. They were local groups of small-holders and tenant farmers organized to defend villages against roaming bandits, warlords, tax collectors or later the Communists and Japanese.

The Grand Masters of these societies claimed to make the members invulnerable to bullets by magic. Both the Big Swords and societies had taken part in the Boxer Rebellion in North China in 1900. During the first three decades of the 20th century, many peasants emigrated to the from the Shandong and Hebei provinces where the had been most influential. The peasants revived the Big Swords Society as a measure of self-defence against the depredations of bandits and Warlords. Because of a large immigration to Northeast China to escape the chaos in North China they were also active in Manchuria.

In 1927, the government's harsh taxes and ill-treatment of local people in the area, close to the Korean border, led to the Big Swords Society being organised there on a large scale, triggered by the collapse of the prevailing Feng-Piao paper currency. In January 1928, the Society rebelled against the Fengtian government, seizing the town of Tonghua for a short time. During the rebellion the Big Swords were respected by the peasants because they did not harm or plunder the common people, but resisted the officials of the warlord Zhang Zuolin.

In the face of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, this traditional form of popular self-defence was revived. These societies soon formed part of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies resisting the Japanese establishment of Manchukuo in 1932 and their later .

The large numbers of men from the Manchurian countryside inspired to take up the fight against a foreign invader under the traditional and quasi-religious Big Sword Society were of a unique character. Members of the brotherhood placed their faith in rustic magics and belief in the righteous character's Heavenly reward. Big Sword soldiers were described as claiming they lead charmed lives and were immune from bullets due to a combination of deep breathing exercises, magical formulas, and the swallowing of charms.

Some Society members were won over and absorbed by the Chinese Red Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War or by the People's Liberation Army in the later Chinese Civil War. In 1953 the Communist Party of China government launched a suppression campaign against Hui-Dao-Men , eradicating them from the Chinese mainland. Some of their offshoots have reappeared, reintroduced by Chinese adherents who live overseas.

Sources

* Anthony Coogan;, Magazine article; History Today, Vol. 43, July 1993.
* Elizabeth J. Perry;

Baiheliang

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Baiheliang is a rock outcropping in Fuling District, Chongqing, People's Republic of China, that parallels the flow of the Yangtze. In the past it served as an ancient device for measuring water levels of the Yangtze in China, the equivalent of a . The horizontal rock ledge 1.6 km long and ten to fifteen meters wide, lay submerged under water most of the year, showing its upper face above water only during the low-water season of winter and early spring. The eyes of fish carved on the stone indicate the lowest water levels of the Yangtze River, which made the site a precious hydrographic marker. Baiheliang is being submerged to a depth of 30 m behind the Three Gorges Dam.

Engraved in the rock are 163 inscriptions and pictures, which include 114 hydrologic annotations, which give detailed records of water levels in the river over 1200 years, since the first year of the Tang dynasty Guangde era, 763; the assembled inscriptions and fish carvings, taken together, formed the longest such sequence in the world. One fish carving originally carved in the Tang dynasty was recarved at a moment of lowest water in 1685: modern measurements recorded the elevation of their eyes, 137.91 meters, almost the same as that of the zero point of the modern water level gauge.

The fish carvings and hydrological inscriptions were virtually unknown in the West until the 1970s, when Chinese experts presented photos of these two fish and hydrological data of Fuling for the past 1,200 years at an international hydrological symposium held in the UK.

The best-known of the fish carvings was a 2.8-meter carp, carved from a section of freestone. Hundreds of poetical homages to the place were inscribed in rock faces, which have disappeared beneath the rising waters as the dam has been completed. In 2003, Xinhua News Agency, the People's Republic's official press agency, headlined the on-line story, June 10, "Accident-maker reef no longer threatens Yangtze navigation".

The inscriptions on the "White Crane Ridge" will be on display in an underwater museum, due to finish construction in 2007.

Asian arowana

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Asian arowana refers to four species of fish in the genus ''Scleropages''. Some sources differentiate these varieties into multiple species, while others consider the different strains to belong to a single species, ''Scleropages formosus''. They have several other common names, including Asian bonytongue, dragon fish, and a number of names specific to different varieties.

Native to Southeast Asia, Asian arowanas inhabit blackwater rivers, slow-moving waters flowing through forested swamps and wetlands. Adults feed on other fish, while juveniles feed on insects.

These popular aquarium fish have special significance in areas influenced by Chinese culture. The name ''dragon fish'' stems from their resemblance to the Chinese dragon. This popularity has had both positive and negative effects on their status as endangered species.

Evolution and taxonomy

Like all members of Osteoglossidae, Asian arowanas are highly adapted to fresh water and are incapable of surviving in the ocean. Therefore, their spread throughout the islands of southeast Asia suggests they diverged from other osteoglossids before the was complete. Genetic studies have confirmed this hypothesis, showing that their ancestor of the Asian arowanas diverged from the ancestor of the Australian arowanas, '''' and '''', about 140 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous period. This divergence took place in the eastern margin of Gondwanaland, with the ancestors of Asian arowanas carried on the Indian subcontinent or smaller landmasses into Asia. The similarity of all ''Scleropages'' species shows that little evolutionary change has taken place recently for these ancient fish.

The first description of these species was published between 1839 and 1844 by German Salomon Müller and Hermann Schlegel, under the name ''Osteoglossum formosum'', although later this species was placed in ''Scleropages'' with the name ''S. formosus''.

Several distinct, naturally occurring colour varieties are recognised, each found in a specific geographic region. They include the following:

* The green is the most common variety, found in Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Malaysia.
* The silver Asian is considered part of the green variety by some. It has two subvarieties, the "grey tail silver" or "Pinoh arowana," and the "yellow tail silver," each found in a different part of the island of Borneo in Indonesia.
* The red-tailed golden is found in northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
* The gold crossback, blue Malayan, or Bukit Merah blue is native to the state of Pahang and area in Perak, Malaysia.
* The red, super red, blood red, or chili red is known only from the upper part of the Kapuas River in western Borneo, Indonesia.

In 2003, a study

Description

Asian arowanas grow up to 90 cm . Like all ''Scleropages'', Asian arowanas have long bodies; large, elongate pectoral fins; and anal fins located far back on the body; and a much larger caudal fin than that of their South American relative, the silver arowana, ''Osteoglossum bicirrhosum''. The mouth is oblique with a very wide gape. The prominent lower jaw has two s at its tip. The gill rakers are stout. Asian arowanas bear teeth on many bones of the mouth, including the jaws, vomer, palatines, pterygoids, parasphenoid, and tongue.

Asian arowana scales are large, , and, in some varieties, metallic coloured, with a distinctive mosaic pattern of raised ribs.

Asian arowanas are distinguished from Australian congenerics '''' and '''' by having fewer lateral line scales , longer pectoral and pelvic fins, and a longer anterior snout.

In mature super red arowanas, the gill covers, lateral scales, and fin membranes of these fishes are metallic red, with the exact hue varying from gold-tinged to deep red. The back is dark brown. In juveniles, the darker the dorsal colouration, the deeper the red will be on maturity.

Two breeders reported success using a garden pond measuring by by deep, with pH maintained between 6.5 and 7.0. The fish were over five years old. The successful harvest took place after the third spawning; in the first two spawnings, the male swallowed the eggs, possibly due to improper water quality.

Relationship with humans

Cultural beliefs

Asian arowanas are considered "lucky" by many people, particularly those from . This reputation derives from the species' resemblance to the Chinese dragon, considered an auspicious symbol. The large metallic scales and double barbels are features shared by the Chinese dragon, and the large pectoral fins are said to make the fish resemble "a dragon in full flight."

In addition, positive Feng Shui associations with water and the colours red and gold make these fishes popular for aquariums. One belief is that while water is a place where gathers, it is naturally a source of energy and must contain an "auspicious" fish such as an arowana in order to have balancing yang energy. Another is that a fish can preserve its owner from death by dying itself.

Conservation

The Asian arowanas are listed as by the 2006 IUCN Red List, with the most recent evaluation taking place in 1996. ''S. formosus'' is one of only eight fish species listed on Appendix I. There are a number of registered CITES breeders in Asia and the specimens they produce can be imported into several nations. Other nations restrict or prohibit possession of Asian arowanas; for example, the United States has listed this species under the Endangered Species Act, and therefore it cannot be possessed in that country without a permit.

Declining is a major threat. For example, Asian arowanas are now uncommon in the Malay Peninsula, where they were once widely distributed, due to environmental destruction. Inclusion in the IUCN Red List was originally based not on biological reasons but on practical ones: though widely distributed throughout southeast Asia, they have been harvested heavily by aquarium collectors. However, habitat loss is likely a greater threat than aquarium collecting.

There is no recent evaluation of conservation status by IUCN.

Beginning in 1989, CITES began allowing Asian arowanas to be traded, provided certain criteria were met, most notably that they were bred in captivity on a for at least two generations. The first of these farms was in Indonesia. DNA markers that distinguish among different strains and between sexes have been identified, allowing aquaculturists to identify these characteristics in immature animals.

Care in captivity

Because they can grow up to 90 centimetres long, Asian arowanas require a large aquarium. They are and may be kept with other ''Scleropages'' only in a very large aquarium, provided all fish are of similar size. Like s, they need a tight-fitting cover to prevent jumping. The water should be well-filtred, , and slightly , and maintained at a temperature between 24-30° .

Mandarin Chinese profanity

2008-10-07T04:00:00.000-07:00

profanity consists of many slang words and insults involving sex.

While many taboo words and expletives involve insulting someone's mother, it is also common to show contempt by scorning another person's ancestors. Other Mandarin insults accuse people of not being human. Another difference is that Mandarin words for excrement or feces are much less commonly used in slang and insults, and there are few counterparts to or Islamic blasphemy.

Sex

Penis

As in English, many Mandarin Chinese slang terms involve the genitalia or other sexual terms. For penis:

*jībā = cock
*jījī = roughly equivalent of "dingy" as it is the childish version of the above.
*xiǎo dìdì = roughly equivalent of "wee-wee"
*kuà xià wù = roughly equivalent of "the package"
*yīnjīng = penis
*diǎo = dick

Vagina

There appear to be more words for vagina, which is more common as an insult than the ones for penis:

*bī = cunt
*èrbī = fuck-up
*shǎbī = stupid person : SB
*sāobī = bitch
*chòubī = stinking cunt
*lànbī = rotten cunt
*yīndào = vagina
*zhuāngbī = poser

Prostitution

In addition to the above expressions used as insults directed against women, other insults involve insinuating that they are prostitutes:

*chòubiǎozi = stinking whore
*mài dòufu is a euphemism for prostitution.
*xiǎojiě = still means "Miss" in many contexts but now also connotes prostitute to many young women, as it suggests expressions like zuò xiǎojiě or sānpéi xiǎojiě , which refers to bargirls who may also be
*xiǎolǎopó = mistress

Breasts

*mīmī is a euphemism for breast.
*mántóu also refers to a woman's breasts; as ''mantou'' is typical of northern Chinese cuisine this term is used primarily in northern China.
*fúshòu
*nǎinǎi = boobies
*zar
*gege
*bàorǔ = big tits, likely reborrowing from Japanese.

Masturbation

Male masturbation, at least, has several vulgar expressions, in addition to two formal/scientific ones that refer to both male and female masturbation :

*d?shǒuqiāng = male masturbation
*dǎfēijī = male masturbation A term which originated from the Cantonese language.
*lǚguǎn/lǚguǎnr = male masturbation
*wǔdǎyī = male masturbation

Sexual intercourse

*cào = to fuck
*gàn = to do = to fuck
*rì " = to fuck. The meaning is obvious and in normal contexts 入 is pronounced rù. But when it is used as a coarse expression, the "u" is elided. See 國語辤典,vol. 3, p.3257.
*chǎofàn = to have sex

Insults

As in English, a vulgar word for the sexual act is used in insults and expletives:

*cào = fuck . is usually erroneously used as a substitute for in print or on the computer, because 肏 was until recently often not available for typesetting or input.
*cào nǐ zǔzōng shíbā dài = fuck your ancestors to the eighteenth generation, the 肏 should have been , which meant "confiscate all the propety of one."

Insulting someone's mother is also common:
*cào nǐ māde = fuck your mother's
*tā māde = his mother's
*tā mā bāzi( his mother's clitoris. Lu Xun differentiates this expression from the previous one. This one can be said in admiration, whereas "tā māde" is just abusive. See his essay, "On 'His mother's'" .
*tā māde niǎo = goddamn it
*qù nǐ nǎinaide = your mom
*qù nǐ māde = your mom
*qù nǐde = fuck off/shut the fuck up
*nǐmāde bī = your mother's cunt
*cào nǐ niáng / cào nǐ mā = fuck your mom
*gàn nǐ mā / gàn nǐ lǎo mǔ = fuck your mom
*gàn nǐ niáng = fuck your mother

Illegitimacy

Insults include implying that the interlocutor's mother or even grandmother was unfaithful. "Turtle" is commonly explained to be an insult because a turtle does not know its father.

*wángbā / wàngbā = cuckold; this was an insult as early as the Song dynasty; some argue that the meant "forgetting the eight virtues"
*wángbādàn / wàngbāgāozi = bastard
*guī sūnzi / guī érzi = bastard
*dài lǜmàozi = to be a cuckold
*zázhǒng = bastard

Buttocks

While there are vulgar expressions in English referring to the buttocks or rectum, there are no real equivalents in Mandarin. Pìgu yǎn or pìyǎnr , the expression for rectum, is not vulgar, but it occurs in various curses involving an imperforate anus:

*jiào nǐ shēng háizi méi pìgu yǎn = literally, "May your child be born with an imperforate anus"; sometimes méi pìgu yǎn is used as an epithet similar to "damned"
*wǒ kào = fuck! or fuckin' awesome! or holy shit!

Sluts

As in the West, highly sexual women have been stigmatized:

* = bitch
*sānbā = airhead, braggart, slut . Used to insult women. One derivation claims that at one point in the Qing Dynasty, foreigners were only permitted to circulate on the eighth, eighteenth, and twenty-eighth of each month, and the Chinese deprecated these aliens by calling them , but others claim refers to March 8th: International Women's Day.
*gōng gòng qì chē = slut used for a women who sleeps around, as in "everyone has had a ride"

Positive connotations

Occasionally, slang words with a negative connotation are turned around and used positively:

*wǒ cào = holy fuck
*niúbī = fucking awesome . This phrase is sometimes also written as B, , , or .
*diǎo / niǎo = cock; this was an insult as long ago as the . Now it sometimes also means "fucking cool" or "fucking outrageous", thanks in large part to the pop star Jay Chou.

Mixed-up

Other insults include the word hùn , which means "mixed-up", or hùn , which means "muddy":

*hùnzhàng = prick
*hùndàn = prick
*hūndàn = prick
*hùnqiú = prick

Eggs

Perhaps due to the influence of wángbādàn , dàn is used in a number of other insults in addition to hùndàn :

*bèndàn = dummy, fool
*dǎodàn = "to cause trouble"
*gǔndàn = get lost!
*huàidàn = bad egg
*hútú dàn = confused/clueless person
*qíongguāng dàn = a poor/penniless person

Melons

The word guā is also used in insults:

*shǎguā = dummy, fool
*dāiguā = dummy, fool

Useless

Fèi appears in a number of insults:

*wōnang fèi = loser
*fèirén = useless person
*fèihuà = useless words

*liúmáng = scoundrel or pervert ; often used by women to insult men who make aggressive advances

Face

Because shame is important in Chinese culture, insulting someone as "shameless" is much stronger than in English:

*bùyàoliǎn = shameless, lit. "doesn't want face"

Girlish

*niángniangqiāng is a pejorative used to describe Chinese males who are extremely effeminate in their speaking style. It is related to the term sājiào , but is predominantly said of males who exhibit a rather "girlish" air of indecisiveness and immaturity. Adherents of both tend to lengthen sentence-final particles while maintaining a higher-pitched intonation all throughout. The usage of the tilde as an Internet meme reflects the popularization of this style of speaking, which is often perceived by Westerners as being cute or seductive.

Inhuman

Other insults accuse people of lacking qualities expected of a human being:

*chùsheng = animal
*nǐ bú shì rén = you're not human
*nǐ shì shénme dōngxi = you're less than human, literally: What kind of object are you?
*nǐ búshì dōngxi = you're less than human
*bùyàoliǎn de dōngxī = you're shameless and less than human
*jiànhuò = lit. "despicable thing"
*sāohuò = lit. "lewd thing"

Death

Sǐ is used in a number of insults:

*sǐ guǐ = bastard
*sǐ sānbā / chòu sānbā = bitch
*sǐ bùyàoliǎn = shameless
*qu sǐ = go die

Shit

Originally the various Mandarin Chinese words for "excrement" were less commonly used as expletives, but that is changing. Perhaps because farting results in something that is useless even for fertilizer: "fàng pì" is an expletive in Mandarin:

*qù chī dàbiàn Eat shit!
*fàng pì = bullshit, nonsense, lie
*pìhuà = bullshit, nonsense
*The words "" , "" and "" , all meaning feces , can be used in compound words and sentences in a profane manner.
*mǐ tián gòng - A play on the writing of "" , referring to excretion

Animals

Dogs

The fact that many insults are prefaced with the Mandarin Chinese word for dog attest to the animal's low status:

*gǒuzǎizi = son of a dog
*gǒu pì = bullshit, nonsense (lit. "dog fart"; in use as early as 1750 in the Qing Dynasty novel ''Ru Lin Wai Shi''
*gǒu pì bù tōng = incoherent, nonsensical
*gǒu niáng yǎng de = son of a bitch
*gǒurìde = son of a bitch
*gǒushǐ duī = a person who behaves badly ; gǒushǐ , or "dog excrement," was used to describe people of low moral character as early as the Song dynasty. Due to Western influence, as well as the similar sound, this has become a synonym for bullshit in some circles.
*gǒuzázhǒng = literally "mongrel dog," a variation on zázhǒng , above.
*zǒugǒu = often translated into English as "running dog", it means an unprincipled person who helps or flatters other, more powerful and often evil people; in use in this sense since the Qing Dynasty
*gǒutuǐzi / gǒutuǐ = variant of zǒugǒu

Rabbits

In at least one case, rabbit is part of an insult:
*xiǎotùzǎizi = son of a rabbit

Horse

*mǎzi = a derogatory word for girlfriend.

Divinity

One of the few insults connected to the supernatural is not used to damn but to compare the insulted person to a disliked god:

*wēnshén = troublemaker

Miscellaneous

Some expressions are harder to explain:

*èrbǎiwǔ = stupid person/idiot
*shūdāizi, roughly equivalent to "nerd". It is used to portray studious person as lacking hands-on experience or social skills. Unlike "nerd", shūdāizi is rarely used in the context of hobbies.

Region specific

Many locations within China have their own local slang, which is scarcely used elsewhere.
*gàn nǐ xiǎo BK de - Local slang from Tianjin, meaning "go fuck your 'thing'", where "BK" refers to male genitalia. However, when insulting females, "马B" is used instead.
*xiǎo yàng le ba - Originating from Southern China. Said upon someone's misfortunes, similar to "haha" or "suck that".
*shén me niǎo - From the northeastern Heilongjiang, although also used in the South. Used similar to "what the fuck?"

Racism

As in any language, Chinese has specific terms and racial slurs for different ethnicities, governments and backgrounds.

Against westerners

*yáng guǐzi "Foreign devil", a slur for White people
*guǐlǎo Borrowed from Cantonese "Gweilo", "ghost" or "ghost guy", a slur for white people

Against Japanese

*xiǎo Rìběn — Literally "little Japan". This term is so common that it has very little impact left . The term can be used to refer to either Japan or individual Japanese. "小", or the word "little", is usually construed as "puny", "lowly" or "small country", but not "spunky".
*日本鬼子 — Literally "Japanese devils". This is used mostly in the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when Japan invaded and occupied large areas of China. This is the title of .
*倭 — This was an ancient name for Japan, but was also adopted by the Japanese. Today, its usage in Chinese is usually intended to give a negative connotation . The character is said to also mean "''dwarf''", although that meaning was not apparent when the name was first used. See Wa .
*倭寇 — Originally referred to Japanese pirates and armed sea merchants who raided the Chinese coastline during the Ming Dynasty . The term was adopted during the Second Sino-Japanese War to refer to invading Japanese forces, . The word is today sometimes used to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.
*日本狗 — Literally "Japanese dogs". The word is used to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.
*大腳盆族 - Ethnic slur towards Japanese used prodominantly by Northern Chinese, mainly those from the city of Tianjin. Literally "Big Feet Bowl Race".
*黃軍 - Literally "Yellow Soldier", used during World War II to represent due to the colour of the uniform. Today, it is used negatively against all Japanese. Since the stereotype of Japanese soldiers are commonly portrayed in war-related TV series in China as short men, with a toothbrush moustache , 黃軍 is also often used to pull jokes on Chinese people with these characteristics, and thus "appear like" Japanese soldiers.
*自慰队 - A pun on the homophone "自卫队" , the definition of 慰 used is "to comfort". This phrase is used to refer to Japanese being , as "自慰队" means "Self-comforting Forces", referring to masturbation.

Against Koreans

*高丽棒子 - Derogatory term used against all ethnic Koreans. 高丽 refers to Ancient Korea , while 棒子 means ''"club"'' or ''"corncob"'', referring to how Koreans would fit into trousers of the Ancient Koryo design. Sometimes 韓棒子 is also used.
*死棒子 - Literally "dead club" or "dead corncob"; refer to 高丽棒子 above.
*二鬼子 - During World War II, 二鬼子 referred to hanjian and in the Imperial Japanese Army, as the Japanese were known as "鬼子" ''''. 二鬼子 literally means ''"second devils"''. Today, 二鬼子 is used against all ethnic Koreans. This is also due to Koreans and Japanese being similar in appearance to Japanese, and many Chinese believing that Koreans are copying Japanese culture.

Other

*印度阿三 - Ethnic slur against .
*台巴子 - Slur originating from the city of Shanghai, 台巴子 refers to Taiwanese, especially advocates of Taiwan independence.
*黑鬼子 - "Literally "Black devil", Anti-African slur similar to nigger.

Homosexuality

While there are various circumlocutions in Mandarin Chinese for , like , yútáo , and bōlí , these are less common as insults. Tóngzhì was recently adopted in Hong Kong and Taiwan to mean homosexual, and is frequently used on the mainland. Since the success of Ang Lee's ''Brokeback Mountain'', duànbèi has also become popular.

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